forensic case studies uk

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Forensic science and beyond

The Government Chief Scientific Adviser's annual report for 2015.

Forensic science and beyond: authenticity, provenance and assurance - report

Ref: GS/15/37a PDF , 439 KB , 16 pages

Forensic science and beyond: authenticity, provenance and assurance - evidence and case studies

Ref: GS/15/37b PDF , 4.88 MB , 207 pages

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The second annual report of the Government Chief Scientific Adviser (GCSA), Sir Mark Walport , looks at the power of forensic science and its many applications.

The report draws on evidence provided by experts in several fields. It covers the use of forensic analysis within the criminal justice system through to the prevention, deterrence and detection of fraudulent products and services.

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Forensic Cases: The Murder of Leanne Tiernan

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She had a black plastic bag over her head, held in place with a dog collar, with a scarf and cable tie around her neck, and cable ties holding her wrists together. Her murderer had then wrapped her body in green plastic bin liners tied with twine.

Length of time since her death

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There were dog hairs on Leanne Tiernan’s body, and scientists in Texas produced a partial dog DNA profile – this was the first time a British murder investigation had used dog DNA profiling. However, John Taylor’s dog had died, so this could not be used in evidence.

The carpet and bloodstains under floorboards

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The Forensics Library

Buck Ruxton

One of the first cases in which forensic entomology was successfully utilised in the UK was that of murderer Buck Ruxton in 1935.

In September 1935 in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, a woman was peering over a bridge above a stream when she made a gruesome discovery. A heap of decaying human remains was found in a small ravine below. Examination of the remains revealed the identities of two victims: the wife and maid of Dr Buck Ruxton – Isabella Kerr and Mary Rogerson. Ruxton, whose full name was Buktyar Rustomji Ratanji Hakim, was a popular and respected GP working in Lancaster at the time, where he lived with his common-law wife Isabella and their three children.

During the investigation various maggot specimens were collected from the remains and sent to a laboratory at the University of Edinburgh. It was there that specialist Dr Mearns identified the species as Calliphora vicina, more commonly known as blowflies. By examining the maggots, it was established that they were somewhere between 12 and 14 days old, thus giving the minimum time for which the remains had been left near the stream.

Suspicion quickly fell on Ruxton for a number of reasons. The two bodies had been dismembered with great skill, suggesting the suspect was knowledgeable in human anatomy, as Ruxton was being a medical doctor. Furthermore, Ruxton had obtained a cut to his hand around the time of the murder and a cleaning woman had reported revolting odours and blood stains in Ruxton’s house. Finally, parts of the victims’ bodies were wrapped up in newspapers, some of which were special editions from the Sunday Graphic, sold only in Morecambe and Lancaster.

Based on the statements of neighbours, it is believed that Ruxton murdered his popular, outgoing wife in a fit of rage, whom he suspected was having an affair. After being disturbed by their housemaid, he proceeded to murder her too, before dismembering the bodies in an attempt to hide their identities before dumping them.

On 5th November 1935, Ruxton was charged with murder and later hanged in May the following year, despite a petition for Ruxton’s mercy receiving over 10,000 signatures.

Goff, M L., 2000. A Fly for the Prosecution: How Insect Evidence Helps Solve Crimes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

19 August 2020

Plant forensics: Cracking criminal cases

Learn how forensic botany and kew’s plant science help solve crimes..

By Katie Avis-Riordan

Plant science has many amazing uses but there is one that may come as a surprise.

It can help catch killers, solve modern-day crimes and save lives in the process.

This branch of plant science is known as forensic botany.

What is forensic botany?

Forensic botany, otherwise known as plant forensics, is the use of plants in criminal investigations .

This includes the analysis of plant and fungal parts, such as leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, wood, fruit, spores and microbiology, plus plant environments and ecology.

The aim is to link plant evidence with a crime, such as placing a suspect at a crime scene through analysis of pollen or seed particles found on their clothing.

Discovering what the plant species is and where it comes from can help identify how the plant was used, or where and when a crime took place.

Some minuscule plant particles invisible to the naked eye can cling to material and be preserved for years, even decades.

This evidence can then be used in court.

How Kew cracks mysteries

Here at Kew, our Commercial Phytochemistry Unit (CPU) is a specialist team of scientists who, as part of their job, help investigators solve their mysteries.

Headed by our Deputy Director of Science Professor Monique Simmonds , the team examine plant and fungal samples sent in by investigators, and use cutting-edge methodology to crack criminal cases.

Bringing all the elements of Kew Science together, and using our wealth of botanical knowledge, world-class collections and databases is crucial for answering investigative questions.

This background knowledge is important and helpful. We have and continue to collect knowledge about the uses of plants, including negative ones such as homicide.

Being able to identify a plant correctly can have life or death consequences.

For example, if someone has been poisoned and is on life support, it is imperative that we identify the plant toxin to aid their medical treatment and recovery, and possibly identify an antidote.

Our team of experts work swiftly and are able to respond quickly to enquiries coming through.

Pollen on the surface of an Avena fatua seed

Finding a botanical fingerprint

In chemical analysis, we look for the botanical fingerprint of the plant chemicals.

We have high-tech equipment here in our labs at Kew that allows us to do botanical fingerprinting by liquid chromatography.

Comparing the results to chemicals already on our database, the team can identify the plant samples.

The importance of plant science in forensics

In the past, crimes have gone unsolved due to the inability of investigators to detect certain types of plant compounds, so killers have got away with poisoning someone with plant-based toxins.

We now have advanced methodology and technology to be able to detect plant substances that we did not have in the early 20th century. We hope to continue with this advancement and increase our knowledge of DNA to help solve future cases.

Kew’s collections and scientific work have been essential in solving some notorious criminal cases.

Listen to our podcast to discover how Kew worked with detectives to solve the case of ‘the curry killer’, catch the suspect and save a life .

Listen to our new podcast

Want more? Episode 2 of our Unearthed podcast will delve deep into the world of forensic botany and Kew's involvement in 'the curry killer' case.

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Has forensic science made it impossible to commit the perfect crime, how to tell a sociopath from a psychopath, scientists identify gases unique to rotting pigs and human bones.

Ted Bundy Although serial killer Ted Bundy was responsible for an estimated 30-plus murders, there was little physical evidence to connect him to the crimes when he was arrested in 1975. Two years later, having been convicted only of kidnapping, Bundy was preparing to stand trial for murder in Colorado when he escaped and headed to Florida. There, he killed three more people early in 1978, and when he was finally captured in February of that year, the physical evidence in those cases led to his conviction. Most crucial was the matching of a bite mark on the buttock of victim Lisa Levy to the Bundy’s distinctive, crooked and chipped teeth. He was convicted also of the murder of 12-year-old Kimberly Leach based on fibres found in his van that matched the girl’s clothing. Bundy was put to death in 1989.

The Lindbergh Kidnapping On March 1, 1932, Charles Lindbergh Jr., the 20-month-old son of the famous aviator, was kidnapped, and although a ransom of $50,000 was paid, the child was never returned. His body was discovered in May just a few miles from his home. Tracking the circulation of the bills used in the ransom payment, authorities were led to Bruno Hauptmann, who was found with over $14,000 of the money in his garage. While Hauptmann claimed that the money belonged to a friend, key testimony from handwriting analysts matched his writing to that on the ransom notes . Additional forensic research connected the wood in Hauptmann’s attic to the wood used in the make-shift ladder that the kidnappers built to reach the child’s bedroom window. Hauptmann was convicted and executed in 1936.

The Atlanta Child Murders In a two year period between 1979 and 1981, 29 people — almost all children — were strangled by a serial killer. Police staked out a local river where other bodies had been dumped and arrested Wayne Williams as he was driving away from the sound of a splash in an area where a body was recovered a couple of days later. Police didn’t witness him drop the body, so their case was based largely on forensic evidence gathered from fibers found on the victims . In all, there were nearly 30 types of fiber linked to items from Williams’ house, his vehicles and even his dog. In 1982, he was convicted of killing two adult victims and sentenced to life in prison, although the Atlanta police announced that Williams was responsible for at least 22 of the child murders.

The Howard Hughes Hoax In 1970, authors Clifford Irving and Richard Suskind concocted a scheme to forge an autobiography of notoriously eccentric and reclusive billionaire Howard Hughes. Assuming that Hughes would never come out from hiding to denounce the book, they felt that their plan was fool-proof. Irving went to publisher McGraw-Hill claiming that Hughes had approached him to write his life story and that he was willing to correspond with only the author. As proof, Irving produced forged letters that he claimed were from Hughes. McGraw-Hill agreed, paying $765,000 for the right to publish the book. When word of the book was made public, however, Hughes contacted reporters to denounce it as false. Not wishing to appear in public, the billionaire would talk to reporters only via telephone. Thus, a “spectographic voiceprint analysis,” measuring tone, pitch and volume, was conducted to determine if the speaker was indeed Howard Hughes. Although a handwriting expert had previously been fooled by the notes that Irving had forged, the voice analyst correctly identified the speaker as Hughes. Irving was exposed and confessed before the book was published. He spent 17 months in prison, while Suskind spent five. Irving later wrote a book about the scheme, The Hoax , which became a major motion picture in 2008.

The Night Stalker Between June 1984 and August 1985, a Southern California serial killer dubbed the Night Stalker broke into victims’ houses as they slept and attacked, murdering 13 and assaulting numerous others. With citizens on high alert, an observant teenager noticed a suspicious vehicle driving through his neighborhood on the night of August 24, 1985. He wrote down the license plate and notified police. It just so happened that the Night Stalker’s latest attack took place that night in that area, so police tracked down the car. It had been abandoned, but police found a key piece of evidence inside: a fingerprint . Using new computer system, investigators quickly matched the print to 25-year-old Richard Ramirez and plastered his image in the media. Within a week, Ramirez was recognized and captured by local citizens. He was sentenced to death.

Machine Gun Kelly George “Machine Gun” Kelly was a notorious criminal during the Prohibition era, taking part in bootlegging, kidnapping and armed robbery. On July 22, 1933, he and another man kidnapped wealthy Oklahoma City oilman Charles Urschel. After a series of ransom notes and communications, a $200,000 ransom was paid — the largest amount ever paid in a kidnapping to date. Urschel was released nine days later, unharmed. The oilman had shrewdly paid close attention to every detail during his ordeal and was able to relate it all to police. Although he was blindfolded, he could tell day from night and was able to estimate the time of day that he heard airplanes fly above. He also noted the date and time of a thunderstorm and the types of animals he heard in what he presumed to be a farmhouse. Using his memories, the FBI pinpointed the likely location in which Urschel was held to a farm owned by Kelly’s father-in-law. What truly linked Kelly and his gang to the kidnapping, though, was Urschel’s fingerprints , which he made sure to place on as many items in the house as possible. Kelly was sentenced to life in prison, where he died in 1954.

The Green River Killer The Green River Killer was responsible for a rash of murders — at least 48 but possibly close to 90 — along the Green River in Washington state in the ’80s and ’90s. Most of the killings occurred in 1982-83, and the victims were almost all prostitutes. One of the suspects that police had identified as early as 1983 was Gary Ridgway , a man with a history of frequenting and abusing prostitutes. However, although they collected DNA samples from Ridgway in 1987, the technology available didn’t allow them to connect him to the killings. It wasn’t until 2001 that new DNA techniques spurred the reexamination of evidence that incriminated Ridgway . He was arrested and later confessed. Ridgway pleaded guilty to 48 murders — later confessing to even more, which remain unconfirmed — in exchange for being spared the death penalty. He was sentenced to 48 life sentences without the possibility of parole.

BTK Killer The BTK (“Bind, Torture, Kill”) Killer was a serial killer who terrorized the Wichita, Kansas area between 1974 and 1991, murdering 10 people over the span. The killer craved media attention and sent letters to local newspapers and TV stations, taunting investigators. It’s this egotism that led to his capture, however. When he resurfaced in 2004 with a series of communications, he chose to send a computer floppy disk to the Wichita Eagle . Forensic analysts traced the deleted data on the disk to a man named Dennis at the Christ Lutheran Church in Wichita . It didn’t take long for the police to arrest Dennis Rader , who confessed and was sentenced to nine life terms in prison.

Jeffrey MacDonald Early in the morning of February 17, 1970, the family of Army doctor Jeffrey MacDonald was attacked, leaving the doctor’s pregnant wife and two young daughters dead from multiple stab wounds. MacDonald himself was injured by what he claimed to be four suspects, but he survived with only minor wounds. Doubt was immediately cast on the doctor’s story, based on the physical evidence on the scene that suggested that he was the killer. However, the Army dropped the case because of the poor quality of the investigative techniques. Several years later, though, MacDonald was brought to trial in a civilian court. Key evidence was provided by a forensic scientist who testified that the doctor’s pajama top, which he claimed to have used to ward off the killers, had 48 smooth, clean holes — too smooth for such a volatile attack. Furthermore, the scientist noted that if the top was folded, the 48 holes could easily have been created by 21 thrusts — the exact number of times that MacDonald’s wife had been stabbed. The holes even matched the pattern of her wounds, suggesting that the pajama top had been laid on her before during the stabbing and not used in self-defense by the doctor. This crime scene reconstruction was crucial in MacDonald’s conviction in 1979. He was sentenced to life in prison for the three murders.

John Joubert In 1983, two murders of schoolboys rocked the Omaha, Nebraska area. The body of one of the boys was found tied with a type of rope that investigators couldn’t identify. While following up on the lead of a mysterious man scouting out a school, they traced the suspect’s license plate to John Joubert , a radar technician at the local Air Force base. In his belongings, they found a rope matching the unusual one used in the murder (which turned out to be Korean). Although DNA analysis technology was not yet an option, the extreme rarity of the rope was enough to lead to Joubert’s confession . Furthermore, hair from one of the victims was found in Joubert’s car . The child killer was even linked to a third murder, in Maine, when his teeth were found to match bite marks on a boy killed in 1982. Joubert was found guilty of all three murders and was put to death in the electric chair in 1996.

Source: Criminal Justice School

Serial Killers

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Forensic Case Study: The Murder of James Bulger

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Forensic Medicine: Case 1

Author(s): john mulhern and ralph bouhaidar.

For the purposes of this case study, imagine that you are the forensic histopathology trainee who has been set the task of formulating a likely cause of death.

Circumstances of death part 1 of 10, police were called to the address of joanne samson, a 34 year old female, at approximately 11:45 on 12th april., following their inquiries, you have been provided with a copy of the police ‘sudden death report’, as follows:.

Controlled Substances Part 2 of 10

Take a moment to familiarise yourself with some of the controlled substances in the united kingdom (uk) and their effects..

Click HERE to see a summary of controlled substances in the UK.

General Practioner (GP) Summary Part 3 of 10

Post mortem: external examination part 4 of 10.

The body was identified as being that of the above Deceased by a body tag attached to the right wrist. The body was also formally identified in person by the following:

External Examination

The body is that of an adult woman of average build, 63kg and 170cm (Body Mass Index: 21.8). Rigor mortis was established.

Click on the diagram to reveal the post mortem findings

Post Mortem: Internal Examination Part 5 of 10

Click on the diagram below to reveal the post mortem findings

Preliminary Cause of Death Part 6 of 10

You have taken a number of samples, including tissue samples for histology and a sample of ilio-femoral blood , urine and vitreous humour for toxicological analysis..

In the interim, there is no evidence that this is a suspicious death and so you issue a death certificate as follows:

1a Unascertained, pending laboratory studies

This means that the body of the Deceased can be released to the family while investigations are pending, which could take some time.

Histology Part 7 of 10

A number of weeks have passed and you now have access to the histology sections., toxicology part 8 of 10, death certificate part 9 of 10, have a think about what you might write for a death certificate and then have a look at some of the examples in the quiz below and decide whether these are accurate representations of the cause of death in this case..

For general helpful guidance on how to complete a MCCD, please refer to: http://www.sad.scot.nhs.uk/atafter-death/death-certification/

Summary of Findings Part 10 of 10

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Forensic Case Studies

ICC v K Sensitive proceedings in the International Criminal Court (Hague) relating to prominent international politician.

R v KELAY Charged with conspiracy under the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. The case is also significant in that two of the defendants are charged under legislation within the Terrorism Acts, which have never previously been the subject of prosecution.

OPERATION VENETIC – EncroChat Multiple proceedings involving complex evidence resulting from the joint operation by the National Crime Agency (NCA) and Dutch law enforcement, which has resulted in hundreds of people arrested in the UK following the infiltration of the encrypted communications platform Encrochat. www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/news/operation-venetic

R v MASON Instructed in relation to MATTHEW MASON, convicted at Chester Crown Court of murder. The trial heard Mason, of Knutsford, had been having underage sex with the 15-year-old schoolboy in the months leading up to his death, and then killed him to prevent being exposed. www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-55796357

R v BREHMER Complex and sensitive evidence involving Timothy Brehmer, a constable with Dorset Police, who killed nurse Claire Parry in a pub car park. Charged with murder, he was convicted at Salisbury Crown Court on the lesser charge of manslaughter on the basis of a loss of self-control. www.theguardian.com/uk-news/dorset-police-officer-timothy-brehmer-jailed-for-10-years-claire-parry-manslaughter

R v MERCER & ORS Instructed in relation to SEAN MERCER, convicted murderer of schoolboy RHYS JONES – Britain’s youngest victim of gangland violence. Sentenced to a minimum of 22 years, JUSTICE IRWIN commented: “You are not soldiers. You have no discipline, no training, no honour”. Unique in the realm of forensic case studies. www.guardian.co.uk//rhys-jones-ukcrime

R v WALLACE Prolific gang of armed robbers that carried out at least 18 raids on armoured vans delivering cash to high street banks. The gang was caught by police in late 2007 when officers from the FLYING SQUAD shot dead two men, including mastermind MARK NUNES, outside a London bank. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7705688.stm

AG v CURTIS WARREN One of the UK’s most notorious criminals convicted with gang charged with plotting to smuggle £1m of cannabis into Jersey. CURTIS WARREN, has been the subject of many forensic case study reports and is the only drug trafficker to make it on to the Sunday Times Rich List, and was once Interpol’s most wanted man. www.guardian.co.uk/curtis-warren

HMRC v CHAHAL & ORS Fraudulent evasion of £15 million from a major high street bank. MR CHAHAL was the director of one of the companies through whom the money was transferred, allegedly under the cover of 6 substantial mobile telephone deals. The background to the case involved allegations of substantial MTIC/carousel related activities.

R v ADDERLEY Member of a criminal network who conspired to supply an estimated £6 million worth of amphetamines and cannabis from Holland. Complex technical evidence including telephone intercepts and covert surveillance techniques. www.thelawpages.com/court-cases/Mark-A-Adderley

R v SAMMON Dubbed by the media as the ‘Merchant of Death’, convicted of running a sophisticated operation to supply firearms to organised crime gangs. 274 converted guns ended up on UK streets – and linked to over 4,000 crimes, including robberies, kidnaps, maimings and murders https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/gun-running-mickey-the-fish-15665543

R v ELLIS – OINK P2P High profile criminal trial of the OINK peer-to-peer file sharing facility – a service that had more than 200,000 members who had downloaded more than 21million music files. www.guardian.co.uk/musicindustry-pirate-bay

R v WEAVER Possession of firearm and ammunition without licence – complex set of forensic evidence involving DNA, fingerprint, and telecommunication evidence.

R v AKMAL, KUMAR, LONE A criminal gang using stolen SIM cards to run a complex national and international telecom fraud that defrauded mobile phone companies out of more than £2million. The gang was convicted and sentenced for a total of 26 years at Southwark Crown Court. www.cityoflondon.police.uk/CityPolice/news071210

R v GUNN & OTHERS Nottingham crime boss convicted for alleged role in murder conspiracy. According to Crown Advocate WOOD QC, “Gunn was at the apex of a complex pyramid of individuals [used for] obtaining … police intelligence”. Essential Unique forensic case studies reference. news.bbc.co.uk/nottinghamshire/colin-gunn-crime

R v COUCHMAN Father of a young woman whose skeletal remains were found in woodland in Sussex, charged in connection with the investigation into her murder. Complex forensic, scientific and technical evidence were essential to the case preparation. news.bbc.co.uk/sussex/couchman-murder

R v SOBCZAK Tomasz Sobczak, 29 year old factory worker, convicted of the murder of Sylwia Ciapcinska. Investigation involved reconstruction of Internet activty, showing the user had viewed extreme ‘torture porn’ videos and visited a website called ‘Polish Serial Killers’, Cell Site Analysis to reconstruct the movements of relevant mobile telephone devices, and assessment of CCTV footage from the surrounding areas. www.people.co.uk/suitcase-body-murderer

R v JOYCE (Gooch Street Gang) COLIN JOYCE, his henchman, LEE AMOS, 33, and three other gang members were all convicted of involvement in the drive-by killing of a mourner at the funeral of a man Joyce had “executed” months earlier. The gang leader turned Manchester’s streets into what a judge called the days of “Al Capone and Chicago”, was jailed for a minimum of 39 years. This forensic case study has been subject to a number of books on criminal enterprises and gangland executions. news.sky.com/Gooch-Gang-Colin-Joyce-Jailed-For-39-Years

R v STEELE In the 1990′s, Essex was making global headlines; first through the tragic ecstasy related death of a teenage girl and then with the triple murders of leading drug dealers in Rettendon (a.k.a. ‘Range Rover Murders’). MICHAEL STEELE and JACK WHOMES were sentenced to life imprisonment following one of the first cases in the United Kingdom to employ the technical science of ‘cell site analysis’ to reconstruct the physical movement of a mobile telephone handset. One of the more compelling forensic case studies for all students of criminology and the evolution of telecommunication evidence. news.bbc.co.uk/life_of_crime/essex_murders.stm

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B IO M ARK F ORENSICS

Providing Independent Forensic Experts to the Legal Profession

Case Studies

• Blood Pattern Evidence

One of our Experts was instructed to examine blood pattern evidence for a murder case in which a man died following an assault in a pub. Blood from the Deceased was found on the Defendant’s clothing. The Defendant admitted having a scuffle with the Deceased earlier in the evening but denied involvement in the murder. The Scientist for the Crown only compared the blood pattern evidence with the version of events given by the Police and found it gave strong support to that allegation. Our Expert considered both the alleged scenarios and found that the blood distribution could support either version of events. The Defendant was found Not Guilty of both Murder and Manslaughter.

• CCTV Evidence: Case 1

The Defendant had been charged with a robbery on a bus, which had been recorded on CCTV. The Crown served a Police Officer’s statement in which he identified the offender in the CCTV recording as the Defendant. Our Expert examined the original footage, found it to be of good quality and conducted a ‘facial mapping’ comparison between the images of the Offender and photographs of the Defendant. Our Expert found that he could exclude the Defendant from being the Offender. His report was served on the Crown and the Case was Dropped .

• CCTV Evidence: Case 2

The Defendant was accused of an assault outside of a nightclub, which was captured on CCTV. The Crown served the CCTV evidence along with a Police Officer’s statement in which he identified the Offender in the CCTV recording as the Defendant. Our Expert examined the original footage and found it to be of very poor quality. Although he could not exclude the Defendant from being the Offender he found any similarities to be extremely limited and very weak; the Offender could have been anyone of a broadly similar appearance. The evidence was presented to the Judge during a Voir Dire and as a result of our Expert’s testimony, the Judge excluded the Police Officer’s identification evidence. The trial commenced but the Case was Dismissed at ‘half time’.

• Crime Scene Examination / DNA Evidence

DNA obtained at a burglary scene from the outside of a window was found to match the Defendant. However, the Defendant had also been burgled and the Police Crime Scene Examiner attended the Defendant’s premises to conduct an examination prior to attending the other burglary scene later that same day. The question of contamination arose and our Crime Scene Examiner reviewed the evidence. Based on information and questions raised by our Expert, the Crown’s Examiner admitted to Defence Counsel that he may have used the same fingerprint brush at both crime scenes, and, because of research our Expert was aware of regarding the contamination of fingerprint brushes with DNA, the Crown’s DNA Scientist confirmed that DNA could have been transferred via the fingerprint brush from the Defendant’s premises to the other burglary scene. The Crown Offered No Evidence .

• DNA Evidence

One of our Experts was instructed in an arson case in which the Defendant was accused of setting fire to a car. A bottle was recovered by the Police from the vehicle and was sent for DNA testing. DNA was found which matched the Defendant (with a ‘one in a billion’ statistic given). Our Expert examined the evidence and produced a report commenting on various aspects of the evidence, including it not being possible to determine when the DNA was deposited and that secondary transfer could not be ruled out. Our Expert’s report was served on the Crown who, as a result of the report, Discontinued Proceedings .

• Fingerprint Evidence

The Defendant had been charged with the armed robbery of a jewellers, in which latex gloves had been left behind at the scene by the Offenders. A finger mark belonging to the Defendant was said by the Police to have been found on the inside of one of the gloves. The Defendant had a legitimate reason for touching the outside of latex gloves but not for wearing them. Our Expert advised Counsel that there was no proof in the evidence served by the Crown that the mark was definitely found on the inside of the glove, particularly as latex gloves are often removed in a manner which causes them to be turned inside out. On cross examination the Police could not confirm if the mark was found on the inside or outside of the glove and the Defendant was found Not Guilty .

• Toxicology Evidence

Having been charged with driving with excess alcohol, the Defendant was adamant he had not drunk sufficient alcohol to take him over the limit. We were therefore instructed to investigate the evidence to ascertain if it was indeed correct. Various information was requested by our Expert which revealed the fact that the Defendant had been permitted to use his asthma inhaler just prior to using the intoximeter. The risk this introduced to potentially giving a false intoximeter reading lead to the Defendant being found Not Guilty .

BioMark Forensics Ltd. PO Box 3538 Slough Berkshire SL3 3BP

Email: [email protected]–science.uk.net

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“The Crown yesterday offered no evidence against the Defendant and a Not Guilty verdict recorded. Many thanks for your assistance.” – Solicitor’s comment © 2013 BioMark Forensics Ltd. Website by BioMark Forensics Ltd. & Revolutions UK

Home > Undergraduate study > Undergraduate courses > Forensic Science BSc (Hons)

Forensic Science BSc (Hons)

Why choose this course.

How is scientific evidence gathered from a crime scene? How is it analysed and used in investigation? How is it interpreted and presented in court?

This course prepares you for a career as a forensic scientist. Case studies, evidence interpretation, fieldwork and laboratory training cover all aspects of investigating criminal offences. These include crime scene processing, forensic archaeology, drugs, toxicology, DNA profiling, body fluids, entomology, fibres, fire investigation and ballistics.

You'll also have an introduction to criminal law, which includes cross-examination in a Crown Court setting.

Specialist topics include blood pattern analysis (BPA), gunshot residue detection, counterfeits and forgeries, and the analysis of trace evidence. In addition, this course also provides additional industry recognised certificates in BPA, forensic toxicology and DNA profiling at no extra cost.

This course scored 100% overall student satisfaction (National Student Survey 2020).

Reasons to choose Kingston University

Accreditation

The 410 course is accredited by the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences for the component standards in Interpretation, Evaluation and Presentation of Evidence; Laboratory Analysis; and Crime Scene Investigation. This course is currently accredited until March 2025. When you graduate you are eligible to apply to be an Associate of the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences (ACSFS post-nominals). Having completed appropriate continuing professional development in a forensic science workplace, you can also become a Professional Member (MCSFS). Find out more from the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences website. The 4 years full-time including a foundation year route is not accredited.

Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences

The scene of crime house.

The scene of crime house is a real semi-detached house located on-site. Its five rooms contain various types of mock crime scenes, including burglary, arson, assault and sexual crime.

Students have to pick up evidence carefully and transport it back to the labs for preservation and analysis. Even the garden contains evidence and is used by the forensic team's archaeologist for teaching.

The crime scene house is also extensively used to teach Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA).

The library offers:

We have cutting edge facilities in DNA analysis, archaeology, questioned documents, toxicology and drug confirmation. Our equipment and instrumentation are based on those used in real life casework examinations, we also have a designated crime scene house.

What you will study

Year 1 offers a broad understanding of the major branches of biology and biochemistry. You will develop key laboratory skills, and learn to give detailed scientific explanations for the theory and practices used in modern forensic science. The Introduction to Forensic Science module gives an overview of types of forensic evidence, such as skeletal remains, forensic entomology, drugs, toxicology, GSR (gun shot residue), DNA analysis, crime scene investigation and fraudulent document analysis. IT, numeracy and study skills will be taught as part of these modules.

Core modules

Genes, cells and tissues.

This module is a core module taken by students studying Biochemistry, Biological Sciences, Biomedical Science, Forensic Science, and Pharmacology. The module introduces students to basic cell biology of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, molecular, organismal and population genetics, germ layers and basic tissue types in the human body, and to a variety of microorganisms. Core information is provided in lectures and supported by material on Canvas. Laboratory practicals give students the opportunity to learn a selection of current techniques used to study cells, tissues, chromosomes and microbes. The module provides a solid foundation for subsequent modules at levels 5 and 6 that expand knowledge in cell biology, anatomy, physiology, genetics and microbiology.

The Biochemical Foundations of Life

This is a core module taken by students studying Biochemistry, Biological Sciences, Biomedical Science, Forensic Biology, Forensic Science, Medical Biochemistry, Nutrition and Pharmacology. The module is intended to give you an understanding of how basic chemical elements are bonded to form complex biomolecules in living systems. The module will then elaborate on the role that structure of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids plays in defining their properties and function along with describing some of the laboratory techniques used in their investigation. The module will also introduce the importance of energy transformations in living organisms. The module provides an essential introduction to level 5 and 6 modules that develop further knowledge in biochemical principles. Core material is delivered through lectures and problem solving workshops supported by laboratory practicals and subsequent data analysis.

Scientific and Laboratory Skills

This first year module is a core module for all Bioscience and Forensic Science programmes, and provides a firm foundation in general scientific and laboratory skills that students require to successfully complete their programmes of study. Students are introduced to the nature of studying in higher education, the need for effective time management and planning of work, the appropriate use of information sources, and to sources of information relating to careers in the biosciences. Scientific analytical and lab/practical skills are developed, together with essential mathematics and statistical skills for life scientists. A significant component of the module consists of the development of basic research skills such as practical skills in the laboratory, the principles of experimental design and the statistical analysis of data.

Introduction to Forensic Science

This module introduces the key types of forensic science and the role and expertise of different forensic specialists. This module is also designed to encourage independent learning and research.

On successful completion of the module, you will be able to:

Year 2 introduces specialist topics in forensic science. These include DNA and human identification, advanced crime-scene analysis, counterfeits and forgeries and the application of analytical techniques to the analysis of trace evidence such as fire, fibres, glass and fingerprints. You will also be introduced to criminal law and receive expert witness training. This will culminate in the cross examination of expert witness testimony and opinion in a mock courtroom setting at Kingston Crown Court.

Research Methods and Topics in Forensic Biology

This is a core module for students studying forensic science. It aims to develop the scientific, academic and research skills that were introduced at level 4, and to relate applications of these skills to study and research in forensic biology. Research skills are taught within the context of forensic biology and associated employment opportunities. The module also develops your knowledge of forensic biology with a particular focus on key methods of human identification and contact trace evidence associated with the human skeleton, tissues and fluids, including DNA analysis. The development of these methods through scientific research and case practice is also addressed to foster a critical evaluation of the applicability and reliability of key forensic techniques. Key issues in the use of biological evidence in forensic investigations, such as the use of controls, reference samples and databases, and measures to minimise bias and error will also be addressed in this module.

Crime Scene, Evidence and Law

This module looks at the duties of all those involved in crime scene processing. Experience of observation and recording at the crime scene, evidence collection, preservation, documentation and chain of custody are discussed. In addition, the module deals with the role of an expert witness and knowledge of the UK Criminal Justice system. The group practical in the crime scene house and the professional conduct and presentation demanded by the mock trials develop key areas of employability. Questions of safety and quality assurance in crime scene processing are also addressed. The Case Assessment and Interpretation (CAI) model will be used in relation to the prosecution and defence scenarios which are assessed during a mock trial. The module introduces statistical models used by forensic scientists in the court of law.

Analytical Science

This module is a core requirement in the Pharmaceutical Science, Forensic science and Biochemistry fields. The module introduces students to the applications of analytical science within analytical biochemistry, clinical chemistry, forensic analysis and the pharmaceutical sciences. It allows you to build your knowledge, practical skills and interpretation skills whilst implementing the analytical process model using scenario-based learning.

Policing and Punishment

This module provides you with a critical insight into key issues and controversies in the delivery of justice, social control and punishment. It encourages you to think critically about the role of the state in the regulation of behaviour and provides an overview of key changes that have occurred in the field of crime control and criminal justice. The first part of the module is dedicated to developing understanding of the concepts of 'policing' and the 'police'. Key issues confronting contemporary policing are explored together with an enhanced awareness of the historical context within which contemporary policing has developed.

Debates about policing are situated within broader debates of social control and governance, with a critical appreciation of the police function and role. It also considers the implications of globalisation for policing both at an organisational and conceptual level. The second part of the module provides you with the opportunity to undertake a critical examination of contemporary debates on the purpose of punishment. You will be introduced to a range of theoretical perspectives and debates on the use of punishment to address criminality and will consider the purpose of punishment in modern societies. This will be accompanied by an examination of different forms of punishment including an in-depth exploration of the use of imprisonment and comparative penal systems.

Optional modules

Counterfeits, fakes and forgeries.

This module is an optional module in the Forensic Science pathway. It is designed to introduce you to the forensic analysis of counterfeits, fakes and forgeries, the implications of these, and their subsequent analysis. The module first introduces you to document analysis and its importance in a forensic investigation. Examples of topics include the analysis of counterfeit currencies, handwriting, signatures, inks, indentations, writing implements and art work. The module will then go on to examine the forensic importance of counterfeit drugs, consumer products and digital/cybercrime. Delivery of this module will include formal lectures, practicals and workshops.

Year 3 provides you with the opportunity to study further forensic topics, including the analysis of body fluids, advanced DNA analysis, examination of crime scene exhibits, drugs, toxicology, fire investigation and ballistics. You can tailor your studies through the option modules in Advanced Analytical Techniques or Forensic Archaeology. You will also undertake an independent research project which will allow you to hone your skills in a specific area of forensic science which includes but is not limited to DNA analysis, crime scene investigation, forensic toxicology and drug analysis, GSR analysis, skeletal anatomy, analysis of fire evidence, questioned documents and document fraud.

Biological Evidence - Advanced Techniques

This module focuses on the detection, recording, analysis and evaluation of a broad range of biological evidence, particularly trace and contact evidence, body fluids and blood patterns.

Forensic Chemistry and Trace Analysis

This module introduces the analytical and forensic techniques encountered in trace and contact evidence analysis. The module focuses on four areas of forensic casework; drugs of abuse, fibre analysis, fire investigation and ballistics.

Project (Bioscience)

This is a core module in the Biosciences field for a number of BSc (Honours) programmes. The project module forms a very important part of the degree programme and probably constitutes the largest piece of independent work a student is likely to undertake during his/her undergraduate studies. There are several types of projects that may be offered to students: a laboratory or field-based project, data projects involving acquisition of data and information from surveys, questionnaires, computer simulations or bioinformatics, or a systematic review of research literature that includes the collection, comparison and original presentation of reported research data. The end point is the same in all cases; review and critical evaluation of qualitative and quantitative information and data to address a hypothesis or research question, and the production of a written report.

This module is a core module for Level 6 Pharmaceutical Science, Chemistry, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences top up and Pharmaceutical Studies students and an option module for Forensic Science students. The module provides you with an opportunity to undertake a scientific project and develop skills required to plan a project, develop a methodology, analyse the data and disseminate the results. Two types of projects are offered to you: an experimental or a non-experimental project. The end point is the same in both cases: review and critical evaluation of data generated from laboratory experiments or collected from published works.

Forensic Archaeology

This module introduces the role of the forensic archaeologist and the broad range of cases in which archaeological techniques may be utilised. These techniques include aerial and geophysical survey, excavation and recording of burials and the outdoor crime scene, and the scientific dating of both questioned objects and human remains.

Advanced Analytical Science

This is a core module of MPharmSci (Hons) Pharmaceutical Science and MChem(Hons) Chemistry and an option for BSc(Hons) Chemistry and BSc(Hons) Pharmaceutical Science students. It takes forward the themes of spectroscopy that were introduced in the previous modules and develops a more rigorous theoretical footing and advanced applications. In parallel to this, analytical themes are introduced covering radiochemical analysis, electroanalysis and thermal analysis.

Global Terrorism and Transnational Crime

The aim of the module is to introduce students to relevant issues within the realm of globalisation, terrorism and international crime: eg. terrorism, environmental crime, piracy, human trafficking, criminal networks, cybercrime. It will enable students to develop a detailed comprehension of the complexity of these criminogenic experiences.

In the first part of the course, the module focuses on terrorism. It will be introducing students to a range of complex historical, political and social factors that have contributed to the articulation of terrorist practices. Students will have a chance to engage in the understanding of the reasons why certain practices emerge, the interaction between terrorist discourses and the media and how international law enforcement bodies work and interact.

The second part of the module will present a critical overview of different organised and transnational crimes. Students will be offered a chance to explore the articulation, social control and impact of organised criminal behaviour at an international level. Students will understand the links between terrorist practices and other organised crime (eg. cybercrime or trafficking of humans).

Please note

Optional modules only run if there is enough demand. If we have an insufficient number of students interested in an optional module, that module will not be offered for this course.

Foundation year

If you would like to study one of our science degrees at Kingston University but are not yet ready to join the first year of a BSc(Hons) course, you can include an extra foundation year within your chosen degree. Please see the science foundation year course page for details of modules.

Future Skills

Embedded within every course curriculum and throughout the whole Kingston experience, Future Skills will play a role in shaping you to become a future-proof graduate, providing you with the skills most valued by employers such as problem-solving, digital competency, and adaptability.

As you progress through your degree, you'll learn to navigate, explore and apply these graduate skills, learning to demonstrate and articulate to employers how future skills give you the edge.

At Kingston University, we're not just keeping up with change, we're creating it.

A female engineering student, in the engineering lab.

Entry requirements

Typical offer 2023.

UCAS tariff points: 112-128 for BSc (Hons); 32 for BSc (Hons) including foundation year from Level 3 qualifications.

A-levels to include Biology or Chemistry at a grade C or above; two science A-levels are desirable; General Studies not accepted.

Alternatively, BTEC Extended Diploma in appropriate Science subject with grades DMM.

Candidates are normally required to hold five GCSE subjects at grade C/4 or above, including Mathematics and English Language.

Alternative routes

We will consider a range of alternative Level 3 qualifications such as an Access Course in Applied Science or Science, which has been passed with 112 UCAS points. Applications from those that have undertaken a Science foundation year will also be considered.

International

We welcome applications from International Applicants. View our standard entry requirements from your country.

All non-UK applicants must meet our English language requirements . For this course it is Academic IELTS of 6.0, with no element below 5.5.

Country-specific information

You will find more information on country specific entry requirements in the International section of our website.

Find your country:

Middle East

Typical offer and UCAS points explained

Like most universities, we use the UCAS Tariff point system for our course entry requirements.

Find out more about UCAS Tariff points and see how A-level, AS level, BTEC Diploma and T-level qualifications translate to the points system.

Teaching and assessment

Teaching includes lectures, seminars, workshops and practicals using specialist teaching areas such as our scene-of-crime house, private bone collection and state of the art analytical laboratories.

Forms of assessment include end-of-module exams, coursework exercises, laboratory reports, and presentations.

Guided independent study (self-managed time)

When not attending timetabled sessions, you will be expected to continue learning independently through self-study. This typically will involve reading journal articles and books, working on individual and group projects, undertaking preparing coursework assignments and presentations, and preparing for final assignments. Your independent learning is supported by a range of excellent facilities including online resources, the library and CANVAS, the online virtual learning platform.

Academic support

Our academic support team here at Kingston University provides help in a range of areas.

Dedicated personal tutor

When you arrive, we'll introduce you to your personal tutor . This is the member of academic staff who will provide academic guidance, be a support throughout your time at Kingston and show you how to make the best use of all the help and resources that we offer at Kingston University.

Your workload

Type of learning and teaching.

Please note: the above breakdowns are a guide calculated on core modules only. Depending on optional modules chosen, this breakdown may change.

How you will be assessed

Type of assessment.

Feedback summary

We aim to provide feedback on assessments within 20 working days.

Your timetable

Your individualised timetable is normally available to students within 48 hours of enrolment. Whilst we make every effort to ensure timetables are as student-friendly as possible, scheduled learning and teaching can take place on any day of the week between 9am and 6pm. For undergraduate students, Wednesday afternoons are normally reserved for sports and cultural activities, but there may be occasions when this is not possible. Timetables for part-time students will depend on the modules selected.

Class sizes

To give you an indication of class sizes, this course normally enrols 50 students and lecture sizes are normally 50-325. However this can vary by module and academic year.

Who teaches this course

This course is delivered by the School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry.

The School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry offers an outstanding and diverse portfolio of undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in biological and biomedical sciences, chemistry, forensic science, pharmacy, pharmacological and pharmaceutical sciences, and sport science and nutrition.

We've invested heavily in the development of new facilities including laboratories for teaching and research to provide students with access to ultra-modern equipment in a wide range of teaching facilities.

Postgraduate students may run or assist in lab sessions and may also contribute to the teaching of seminars under the supervision of the module leader.

Dr Brian Rooney

Course leader.

Professor James Barker

Dr Rosa Busquets

Mr Alan Calder

Dr John Fletcher

Dr Carl Hall

Dr Francesca Mackenzie

Dr Robert McHardy

Dr Huda Morgan

Dr Nigel Page

Dr elena polycarpou.

Dr Danae Prokopiou

Dr layla renshaw.

Dr Ravtej Singh Thatti

Dr Baljit Kaur Thatti (née Ghatora)

Dr Helen Wickstead MCIfA FHEA FSA

Dr niousha yarandi, course fees and funding, 2023/24 fees for this course.

The tuition fee you pay depends on whether you are assessed as a 'Home' (UK), 'Islands' or 'International' student. In 2023/24 the fees for this course are:

For courses with a sandwich year, the fee for the placement year can be viewed on the undergraduate fees table . The placement fee published is for the relevant academic year stated in the table. This fee is subject to annual increases but will not increase by more than the fee caps as prescribed by the Office for Students or such other replacing body.

* For full-time programmes of a duration of more than one academic year, the published fee is an annual fee, payable each year, for the duration of the programme. Your annual tuition fees cover your first attempt at all of the modules necessary to complete that academic year. A re-study of any modules will incur additional charges calculated by the number of credits. Home tuition fees may be subject to annual increases but will not increase by more than the fee caps as prescribed by the Office for Students or such other replacing body. Full-time taught International fees are subject to an annual increase and are published in advance for the full duration of the programme.

Eligible UK students can apply to the Government for a tuition loan, which is paid direct to the University. This has a low interest-rate which is charged from the time the first part of the loan is paid to the University until you have repaid it.

** Foundation fees are awaiting the outcomes of the Government's 'Higher education policy statement and reform consultation'.

2022/23 fees for this course

The tuition fee you pay depends on whether you are assessed as a 'Home' (UK), 'Islands' or 'International' student. In 2022/23 the fees for this course are:

* If your course involves a foundation year, the fee for that year for Home (UK) students will be £9,250 in 2022/23. The fees shown above apply for year 1 of the degree from 2022/23 onwards (fees may rise in line with inflation for future academic years). For full time programmes of a duration of more than one academic year, the published fee is an annual fee, payable each year, for the duration of the programme. Your annual tuition fees cover your first attempt at all of the modules necessary to complete that academic year. A re-study of any modules will incur additional charges calculated by the number of credits. Home tuition fees may be subject to annual increases but will not increase by more than the fee caps as prescribed by the Office for Students or such other replacing body. Full time taught International fees are subject to an annual increase and are published in advance for the full duration of the programme.

Note for EU students: UK withdrawal from the European Union

The Government has recently announced that new students from the European Union and Swiss Nationals starting their course after August 2021 will no longer be eligible for a student loan in England for Undergraduate or Postgraduate studies from the 2021/22 academic year. This decision only applies to new EU students starting after 2021/22. If you are an existing/continuing EU student, you will continue to be funded until you graduate or withdraw from your course.

Need to know more?

Our undergraduate fees and funding section provides information and advice on money matters.

Additional costs

Depending on the programme of study, there may be extra costs that are not covered by tuition fees which students will need to consider when planning their studies. Tuition fees cover the cost of your teaching, assessment and operating University facilities such as the library, access to shared IT equipment and other support services. Accommodation and living costs are not included in our fees.

Where a course has additional expenses, we make every effort to highlight them. These may include optional field trips, materials (e.g. art, design, engineering), security checks such as DBS, uniforms, specialist clothing or professional memberships.

Our libraries are a valuable resource with an extensive collection of books and journals as well as first-class facilities and IT equipment. You may prefer to buy your own copy of key textbooks; this can cost between £50 and £250 per year.

Computer equipment

There are open-access networked computers available across the University, plus laptops available to loan . You may find it useful to have your own PC, laptop or tablet which you can use around campus and in halls of residence. Free WiFi is available on each campus. You may wish to purchase your own computer, which can cost between £100 and £3,000 depending on your course requirements.

Photocopying and printing

In the majority of cases, written coursework can be submitted online. There may be instances when you will be required to submit work in a printed format. Printing, binding and photocopying costs are not included in your tuition fees, this may cost up to £100 per year.

Travel costs are not included in your tuition fees but we do have a free intersite bus service which links the campuses, Surbiton train station, Kingston upon Thames train station, Norbiton train station and halls of residence.

If the placement year option is chosen, during this year travel costs will vary according to the location of the placement, and could be from £0 to £2,000.

Field trips

All field trips that are compulsory to attend to complete your course are paid for by the University. There may be small fees incurred for optional field trips such as travel costs and refreshments.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Kingston University will supply you with a lab coat and safety goggles at the start of the year.

After you graduate

You'll be prepared to work in a range of environments, including forensic laboratories, policing, analytical chemistry laboratories, hospitals and private consultancies.

Employability preparation at Kingston University

In addition to building expertise in your own discipline, our courses will also help you to develop key transferable skills that you'll need for professional life or further study once you graduate.

As well as a range of careers and employability activities at Kingston, we also offer you the chance to apply and develop your skills in live contexts as an integral part of your course. Opportunities include:

In your final year, you'll get the opportunity to complete a major 'capstone' project where you can apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired to a range of real issues in different contexts. This is a great way to learn and is a valuable bridge to employment or further research at masters level.

Courses available after you graduate

If you decide that you would like to go on to postgraduate study after your undergraduate course, we offer a 10% discount on our postgraduate course tuition fees to our alumni.

What our graduates say

Kingston University graduate Susan Richmond talks about her experiences on the Forensic Science:

What our students say

I always wanted to have a career in forensics. As a mature student from a non-science background the foundation entry was a great opportunity for me. What made Kingston stand out above all others was how welcoming the staff were when I attended an open day. I remember feeling extremely nervous and out of place until one of my lecturers took the time to talk to me and made me feel completely at ease and optimistic for the future.

I have loved my time here. Not only have I learned a vast amount of knowledge and skills for my professional career but for my personal development too. Being part of the Faculty, there are so many great opportunities available from the University and I have been lucky to be a part of a few of them, from the amazing mentoring scheme to working an incredible summer internship.

Crime scene evidence and forensic archaeology are my absolute favourites. The crime scene house and bone labs provide the hands-on experience I need and give me an insight into what it is like to work in the field.

My goal is to become a crime scene officer. Here they make that achievable so if you are thinking of studying forensic science, come to Kingston University. Not only are the facilities fantastic but the teaching staff are extremely caring and dedicated to your learning.

My advice to anyone joining is to make the most of every opportunity, enjoy it and never be afraid to ask for help.

Alice McQuillan

Overall I enjoyed my experience at Kingston University. The students and staff are easy to communicate with. Within the course itself, the modules you are given the opportunities to select are enjoyable as well as informative.

For my future goal, I want to study further and become a fire forensics investigator. This has not been an intended goal until I attended the University, branching out my ideas of what forensic science really is.

To future students who wish to study forensics, like for any course, just don't procrastinate and have a want to learn it!

Isra Abdulle

I think the highlight of the course has been getting stuck into the actual forensics. I have really enjoyed learning more about the biological side of the body.

The only thing I have struggled with is the chemistry aspect of the course, which I find quite challenging. It just means I have to do a little bit of extra work to cover myself, but that's easy because there are always extra workshops and help available.

The course has helped to focus my ambitions. I have decided I want to go into the policing side of forensics. During our second semester we investigated a death. Part of that module involved looking at what the police would do. It helped me realise that this was something I really enjoyed and was interested in.

Pardeep Kaur Sangha – Forensic Science and Investigative Analysis BSc(Hons)

At the time when I applied, only three universities in London were running a forensics course. I was impressed with Kingston when I came here for an interview.

The course tutors are very approachable. Many of the lecturers put a lot of effort into their lectures to ensure they are interesting and informative. They are able to pass on their enthusiasm to us, and use cases and their own experience to bring the lectures to life. For me, the most interesting part of the classes is the application of ideas to solve forensic questions. I enjoy problem solving.

The course has opened my eyes to the vast range of career options in forensics and to the possibility of doing an MSc. I am considering spending a year or two as a SOCO (scene of crimes officer) to gain practical experience of crime scenes before settling on a definitive career route.

Tracey Barlow – Forensic Science and Investigative Analysis BSc(Hons)

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Forensic mental health.

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 January 2018

What is forensic psychiatry? The name implies a branch of psychiatry connected with, or pursued in, courts of law. Other medical specialities have transcended the literal meaning of their name; for example, orthopaedic surgeons no longer restrict their activities to crippled children. Some would, however, constrain forensic psychiatry to exactly what the name indicates: the application of psychiatry to evaluations for legal purposes ( Reference Pollack Pollack, 1974 ; Reference Weinstock, Leong, Silva and Rosner Weinstock et al , 1994 ). This is an impoverished vision. It constrains our speciality to acting exclusively as handmaidens to the courts. The forensic psychiatrist in the court process can all too often face an unequal struggle to maintain the dignity of a medical expert against overwhelming pressures, both institutional and fiscal, to become the lawyer's cat's-paw. Working exclusively for, and in, the courts may increase the practitioner's vulnerability to such use. Conversely, having an expertise and practice firmly rooted in a clinical practice away from the legal arena may offer a greater element of independence and a firmer basis for the claimed expertise.

Forensic mental health defined more broadly is an area of specialisation that, in the criminal sphere, involves the assessment and treatment of those who are both mentally disordered and whose behaviour has led, or could lead, to offending. In the civil sphere forensic mental health has a more complex remit, not only being involved in the assessment and treatment of those who have potentially compensatable injuries but also providing advice to courts and tribunals on competency and capacity. The papers in this special section of the Journal will focus on the forensic mental health professional's activities related directly to violent and criminal behaviour.

Defining forensic psychiatry in terms of the assessment and treatment of the mentally abnormal offender delineates an area of concern that could potentially engulf much of mental health. Offending behaviour is common in the whole community, and among adolescents it approaches the universal. Even criminal convictions are spread widely through society and even more widely among people with mental disorders ( Reference Taylor and Gunn Taylor & Gunn, 1984 ; Reference Hodgins Hodgins, 1993 ; Reference Wessely Wessely, 1997 ; Reference Wallace, Mullen and Burgess Wallace et al , 1998 ). The borders of forensic mental health need a clearer marker than offensive behaviour, or even criminal convictions among people with mental disorders. Such boundaries are in the process of being defined and redefined in the current phase of rapid change and development that is gripping forensic mental health services throughout the Western World.

In practice, patients often gravitate to forensic services when the nature of their offending, or the apprehension created by their behaviour, is such as to overwhelm the tolerance or confidence of professionals in the general mental health services. Currently escalating rates of referral to forensic services are being fed, in part, by increasing anxieties about the potential for violent behaviour in certain categories of patients. In part they are also driven by the emerging culture of blame in which professionals fear being held responsible for failing to protect their fellow citizens from the fear-inducing, or frankly violent, behaviour of those who have been in their care. The shift to mental health services that are community based and rely on general hospital units for in-patient facilities has tended, understandably, to decrease further the confidence that the general mental health services have in their facilities, or even skills, to manage the more challenging and potentially frightening patient. Compounding these influences are changes in our societies that tend to decrease the tolerance for difficult and intrusive behaviour and to increase the demand that professionals, rather than neighbours and family, control such deviance. This is particularly the case when the threat is perceived as arising from mental disorder. Given these influences, and others, it can be predicted with confidence that whatever the definition and proper boundaries for forensic mental health services, they are going to be larger and more obvious in the future.

RISK ASSESSMENTS AND THE THERAPEUTICS OF RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk assessment and risk management have emerged as central elements not just in forensic practice but in all mental health practice. The long-term viability of community care, which has become the central plank of most modern mental health services, is dependent on assuaging the anxieties of the public, and politicians, about the dangerousness of people with mental illnesses. Exaggerated and misplaced though such public fears may be on occasion, they nevertheless have the capacity to damage seriously, or destroy, the progress made towards less oppressive and custodial mental health services. Mental health services have a responsibility to do all that they can to provide appropriate care and support to those mentally disordered people with an increased probability of acting violently, be it towards themselves or towards others. The aim is to identify and manage such risks before they manifest in violence.

The probability of there emerging difficult, aggressive and socially disruptive behaviour that leads to distress for patients, their carers and the wider community can be identified in advance and, with proper management, prevented. What will never be possible is for mental health services to prevent all violent acts in their patients, any more than such a perfection of prevention can be obtained in the wider community. What will almost certainly remain highly problematic is identifying in advance that tiny minority of people with mental disorders who may go on to inflict serious or fatal injury on others. Only the infallible retrospectoscope and the wisdom of hind-sight can identify reliably the tell-tale signs of the future killer. This being so, campaigns of blaming mental health professionals for failing to prevent such rare and essentially unforeseeable tragedies as homicide can only lead to injustice and be a spur to defensive and increasingly coercive practices. Conversely, there is much to be gained from the open discussion of improved methods of identifying and managing potentially aggressive patients, as well as from programmes for analysing and learning from the inevitable incidents and failures (however minor). Such quality assurance practices only work, however, if they focus on improving future clinical practice and training rather than on assigning blame and criticising individuals.

The paper by Monahan et al ( Reference Monahan, Steadman and Appelbaum 2000 , this issue) offers some of the early fruits of the MacArthur collaboration, aimed at elucidating the factors relevant to assessing the risks of violent behaviour in people with mental disorders. The collaboration brought together some of the finest minds in psychology, medicine, sociology and law to design and carry through a research protocol that would generate the data from which actuarial predictions could be made about the probability of future violence in people with mental disorders. The data from this MacArthur study deserve to command respect and will repay detailed consideration. Equally, the study has to be approached with caution, particularly when its results are to be generalised to patient populations that may differ significantly from those studied.

For example, it may surprise clinicians that in Monahan et al 's actuarial tool for assessing the risk of violence, the diagnosis of schizophrenia places a subject into a low-risk category. The evidence is now virtually overwhelming that a diagnosis of schizophrenia, at least in males, is associated with higher rates of reported interpersonal violence and convictions for violent offences ( Reference Taylor and Gunn Taylor & Gunn, 1984 ; Reference Lindqvist and Allebeck Lindqvist & Allebeck, 1990 ; Reference Swanson, Holzer and Canju Swanson et al , 1990 ; Reference Hodgins Hodgins, 1992 ; Reference Eronen, Tilhonen and Hakola Eronen et al , 1996 ; Reference Wallace, Mullen and Burgess Wallace et al , 1998 ). This association has been established by comparing violence measures in those with schizophrenia with similar measures in the general population. Monahan et al , however, are concerned with differentiating between levels of violence in a population of admissions to acute psychiatric facilities in urban public hospitals in the USA. It becomes less counter-intuitive for schizophrenia to be a factor contributing to a lower-risk categorisation when you realise that this is compared with a population in which an admission diagnosis of alcohol or drug abuse was made in 59.3% and of a personality disorder in 36.6%, with schizophrenia being diagnosed in only 26% ( Reference Steadman, Mulvey and Monahan Steadman et al , 1998 ). In acute admission wards in the public mental health services of most British, European or Australasian countries, the diagnostic mix would be dramatically different. Does this imply then that the MacArthur actuarial tool will not travel well? Not necessarily. What it does imply is that it will require validating and potentially modifying for use in different clinical and sociocultural contexts.

Like any project that aspires to produce a risk assessment instrument, the MacArthur collaboration is concerned with establishing robust correlations between measurable factors and the later target outcome, in this case violence. Correlations here, as everywhere, are not necessarily reflective of causal connections. They do not have to be to be useful actuarially. If, however, we wish to move from risk assessment to a risk management strategy that is not content to rely solely on incarceration and containment, then attempting to articulate the causal nexus that may underlie the predictive correlations becomes critical. The challenge for forensic mental health professionals is to move from risk assessment to the therapeutics of risk management. This theme is clearly developed by Lindqvist & Skipworth ( Reference Hodgins and Skipworth 2000 , this issue).

Risk factors represent significant statistical associations subject only to the proviso that the risk factor precedes the predicted outcome. They present themselves as innocent of cultural and social assumptions, but this is just an appearance. In some risk assessment schedules, being male or giving a history of child abuse contributes to the prediction of future dangerousness. Leaving aside the moral and ethical implications of potentially disadvantaging people because of gender and past victimisation, these two risk factors present as a biological (well almost) and a historical fact. Both are effectively immutable but the links between, on the one hand, maleness or being abused as a child and, on the other hand, violent proclivities are likely to be mediated by a wide range of factors, of which some at least will be open to influence and therapeutic intervention.

Among the potential associations with having a history of child abuse are problems with interpersonal and sexual adjustment, increased risks of substance misuse, high rates of personality problems and increased anxiety and depressive symptoms ( Reference Fergusson and Mullen Fergusson & Mullen, 1999 ). It would seem plausible that one or more of such factors contributes to mediating the reported association between a history of child abuse and subsequent offending behaviour. Nothing can be done to change an existing history of abuse but a lot can be done about the subsequent social, psychological and behavioural difficulties that may manifest in adult life. By disaggregating a history of child abuse into the components of adult disorder to which the abuse may have contributed, you transform an unchangeable piece of history into a group of current problems to which therapeutic efforts can be directed. The signpost to future dangerousness is in the process transformed into an agenda for prevention. The focus is shifted from controlling or incarcerating those destined to be dangerous to an agenda of prevention by care and support. It is only the latter form of prevention for which the skills and knowledge of mental health professionals and appropriate.

Risk assessments, I would assert, are the proper concern of health professionals to the extent that they initiate remedial interventions that directly or indirectly benefit the person assessed. Decreasing a mentally disordered individual's chance of injuring others is a benefit to them as well as to the future victim. Such prevention is part of a health professional's legitimate activity if, and only if, it is part of therapy for a mental disorder or for psychological or emotional dysfunction. Confining and containing offenders as punishment, or simply to prevent further offending, may be legitimate for a criminal justice system but should have no place in a health service.

IMPROVING FORENSIC MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES

The history of forensic mental health services, until recently, was marked and marred by isolation: geographical isolation in the insane asylums and prisons; professional isolation, which was particularly marked for nursing staff who, for example, in some forensic hospitals in the UK chose to identify themselves with prison officers rather than primarily as members of the nursing profession; and institutional isolation, with forensic services all too often organisationally fragmented and isolated from general mental health services. One effect of such isolations has been that much of the progress in the organisation and delivery of general mental health services has passed forensic services by. The anachronistic and unforgivable giant high-security hospitals still dominate not just British forensic mental health services but those of much of the Western World. Community-based and rehabilitative services are often rudimentary or non-existent. This is despite the reality that nearly all patients for whom forensic mental health services assume care will eventually return to the community, and for most the vast majority of their care, or lack of it, will occur in the community. Reconnecting and reintegrating forensic services with general mental health services will benefit both, because not only has the separation too often left important parts of the forensic services marooned in the past, but it has also often left general services without the benefit of the skills and knowledge generated in the forensic area.

Lindqvist came to international attention following his pioneering of the case link methodology to establish the relative rates of offending in the various types of schizophrenia ( Reference Lindqvist and Allebeck Lindqvist & Allebeck, 1990 ). The paper by Lindqvist & Skipworth ( Reference Hodgins and Skipworth 2000 , this issue) moves on from establishing levels of risk to attempting to reduce those risks. They place risk assessment in a context that transforms actuarial probabilities into the springboard for active therapy and rehabilitation. Their paper exemplifies the developing focus in forensic mental health on rehabilitation and long-term community management.

Central to Gunn's ( Reference Gunn 2000 , this issue) wide-ranging review of current forensic psychiatric practice is a concern that on both sides of the Atlantic the wider psychiatric profession is withdrawing from its involvement and concern with the care and treatment of a range of mentally disordered offenders. Gunn argues that this is most obvious in the UK in the increasing numbers of people with mental disorders accumulating in prison, as well as in the paucity of services provided to them once incarcerated. This is particularly so if they are unfortunate enough to be labelled ‘personality disordered’ rather than acquiring the respectability of a mental illness diagnosis. In the USA ‘correctional mental health’, as prison-based mental health services tend to be called, appears to be developing separately from mainstream American forensic psychiatry ( Reference Puisis Puisis, 1998 ). Whatever its current limitations, correctional psychiatry at least boasts a clear focus on the care and treatment of offenders. Failing to provide adequate mental health services for prisoners creates one set of problems, and concentrating forensic mental health services in prison hospitals produces quite other difficulties. Reducing the destructive impact of prison environments on those rendered vulnerable by mental disorder is difficult enough but it is even more problematic to attempt to sustain a culture of care and treatment in prison-based health services against the constant intrusions of a correctional culture. The prison culture, although slowly changing, still tends to emphasise control, compliance, rigid routines and obedience to authority. Developing effective therapeutic programmes in an environment in which the prisoner is usually a directed object, rather than a subjective participant, is far from easy. This is particularly true when approaching the management of personality disorders, a point that should perhaps be pondered by politicians and service planners on both sides of the Atlantic, who seem bent on creating hospital prisons or prison hospitals to contain and theoretically treat, both so-called dangerous seriously personality-disordered people and those with the fear-inducing appellation of sexual predator ( Reference Heilbrun, Ogloff and Picarello Heilbrun et al , 1999 ; Home Office & Department of Health, 1999 ). If, of course, the political agenda is not to create real opportunities for treatment but simply to justify preventive detention, then such initiatives will doubtless reach their political objectives ( Reference Eastman Eastman, 1999 ).

Most existing forensic mental health services, like Topsy, just grew. They reflect the impact of their particular local and national histories more than any organising principles and purposes. In various parts of the world, however, there are the beginnings of the development and evaluation of systems of care delivery in forensic mental health that aspire to encompass the prisons, secure hospital facilities, medium- and low-security provisions as well as community services. If forensic mental health services are to deliver adequate care for their patients and the increased sense of safety that the wider community expects, it will be important to evaluate carefully and to compare such emerging service models.

EMBRACING NEW HORIZONS FOR FORENSIC MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS

The expanded role of forensic mental health professionals that has accompanied the increasing prominence of risk assessment and risk management has not been confined to traditional mental health areas. Psychologists and psychiatrists are increasingly called upon to assist a wide range of organisations in both assessing their exposure to risks from mentally disturbed individuals and in effectively minimising the perceived threats. This important growth in the roles of forensic mental health professionals is ably illustrated by Fletcher et al ( Reference Fletcher, Brakel and Cavanaugh 2000 , this issue) from the Isaac Ray Center.

Making available mental health expertise to relieve perceived social problems should not conflict with traditional medical practice if its aim is, through identifying and relieving disorder, to benefit primarily patients and, through their more adequate care and management, to benefit those they potentially threaten. One of the problems of the current fashion for substituting ‘client’ or ‘consumer’ for ‘patient’ is that in this situation, as in so many, it obfuscates the clinician's ethical and therapeutic responsibilities. Using the term ‘client’ facilitates substituting a different client for the individual actually assessed, thus employers, the courts, police, etc. become the health professional's client. It is more difficult to regard organisations such as the criminal justice system as the patient. There are manifest ethical and professional dangers for mental health professionals who assess patients at the behest of employers or social agencies when the main beneficiary of such assessments is the organisation, with potentially the loser being the patient. Prior consent and the waiving of claims to confidentiality by the individual being assessed in no way mitigates these dilemmas, given that such undertakings can hardly be considered uncoerced if the examination is, for example, a condition of acquiring or retaining employment. Further, by focusing on individual psychopathology as the cause of conflict and violence in the workplace, there is a danger of overlooking the organisational contributions to creating the conditions for such conflict, as well as providing an excuse for management to abrogate to professional advisors their responsibilities to maintain a safe workplace ( Reference Mullen Mullen, 1997 ).

The American context of Fletcher et al 's work is one in which, as they note, the civil law is the primary regulator of conduct aimed at curbing workplace violence. The law, in the US context, operates through placing employers at hazard of being held liable for injuries resulting from violence in the workplace. Given such a context, it becomes understandable that there is an attempt to shift at least some responsibility back to the perpetrators or potential perpetrators. Similarly, the search by organisations for insurance in the form of professionally performed risk assessments is encouraged by the drive to limit potential liability. The issue of workplace violence calls forth different responses in jurisdictions where the law is less eager to endorse implied duties to rescue, and where demonstrating negligence, recklessness or failure to maintain accepted standards still plays a central role in establishing legal liability. That being said, trends in the USA have a tendency to influence medical and legal practice throughout the English-speaking world and beyond. Risk assessments of the type discussed by Fletcher et al will become an increasingly important aspect of the work of forensic mental health professionals, and not just in the USA.

The knowledge generated by forensic mental health professionals, both through their practice and through research, can be of potential relevance to a range of organisations and social agencies. It is right and proper that such knowledge be applied to benefit the community. How this is to occur, and to what extent health professionals should be directly involved in the wider applications of such knowledge, needs to be considered by the various professional groups involved. In our own narrow experience in the State of Victoria in Australia, it has been our forensic services' work with stalkers and with persistent claimants that has generated the widest community and interdisciplinary interest. The work has also led to calls from a remarkably diverse range of organisations for advice and input on how to cope with the problems created in the workplace, and the wider community, by such behaviour. Knowledge generated by forensic mental health professionals through research and clinical experience can, I believe, inform improvements in practices aimed at ensuring safer workplaces and a safer community. The challenge is to mediate that knowledge and enlarge our professional roles without becoming salespeople, pundits, instant experts or ersatz police officers and also without compromising our role as clinicians.

The presence of significant substance misuse in those mentally disordered individuals who behave violently has been reported repeatedly. This literature is ably reviewed by Soyka ( Reference Soyka 2000 , this issue). In those with schizophrenia, for example, such a high level of offending behaviour is reported in those who also misuse alcohol or drugs that it appears to account for all, or virtually all, of the elevated rates in schizophrenia as a whole ( Reference Soyka, Albus and Finelli Soyka et al , 1993 ; Reference Räsänen, Tiihonen and Isohanni Räsänen et al , 1998 ; Reference Swartz, Swanson and Hiday Swartz et al , 1998 ; Reference Wallace, Mullen and Burgess Wallace et al , 1998 ). The association, in theory, between substance misuse, mental disorder and offending could reflect:

(a) substance use inducing violent behaviour in people with mental disorders (a direct causal relationship);

(b) substance use disrupting the effective treatment of these disorders, via exacerbation of symptoms and/or decreasing compliance, with resulting increased disturbance and consequent violence (an indirect causal relationship).

(c) that people with mental disorders who are prone to violent behaviour also happen to be prone to substance misuse (a non-causal association based on chance or, more likely, on a common origin in a third factor such as personality).

In practice all three relationships may play a role in mediating the association between misusing substances, having a mental disorder and acting violently. Irrespective of what causal relationship, if any, exists, the presence of substance misuse is a robust risk factor for violent behaviour. Given, however, that it is unlikely that the relationship is entirely accounted for by a common origin in something like personality factors, then the effective management of substance misuse in people with mental disorders also becomes central to preventing future antisocial behaviour (as, for that matter, it is in the non-disordered population). One of the most obvious impacts of the research over recent years on mental disorder and offending behaviour has been the increased emphasis on preventing and managing substance misuse in the patients of forensic mental health services. Whether we use the term comorbid or co-existing, the challenge is the same: how to reduce substance misuse by people with mental disorders.

The papers in this special section of the Journal aim to provide a glimpse into research and practice internationally in the area of forensic mental health. Inevitably there are yawning gaps in the coverage, both of topics and of countries. Some gaps were due to my editorial failures and some to those who promised contributions but were not able to deliver. Conspicuous by their absence are papers dealing with the management of personality disorders in offenders and any consideration of the impact of offending on victims. Next to managing substance misuse, the problems created by people with personality disorders and the challenges of effectively helping victims recover from the impact of offending upon them are likely to be central to developing forensic mental health practice. Forensic mental health is changing rapidly. Hopefully this issue of the Journal will give some idea of the likely directions in which that growth will occur.

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How Early Forensic Strategies have been used in the past

1. Murder along the beach – Crumbles Murder

This derives its name from the two successive crimes that occurred along a beach called Crumbles near Eastbourne, UK. It involved the cold-blooded murder of Irene Munro and Emily Kaye in 1920 and 1924 respectively.

Sir Bernard Spilsbury (the pathologist who investigated the case) described Kaye’s death as the goriest incident that he ever witnessed. Her dismembered remains were strewn in and around a bungalow at the Crumbles. Her married lover, Patrick Mahon, was the first one to come under the scanner as Kaye was pregnant with his child. Although Mahon admitted to the crime, he projected it as an accident. A move which he considered as smart, but which was actually not a well-thought-out one!

He stated that Kaye attacked him following an emotional fit during an argument. This resulted in a squabble wherein Kaye accidentally fell and hit her head on a coal bucket. Mahon defended himself saying that he was so unnerved by it that he purchased a knife and butchered her body. A forerunner in forensics at that time and a pathologist – Bernard Spilsbury, took the reins of probing the case further.

He reconstructed the events of the murder by examining the butchered remains of her body. He also proved that she could not have been killed by the coal bucket. This is because the bucket which was found intact, was poorly made and quite frail, would have broken with the impact. Eventually, early forensics led to Mahon being found guilty and being sentenced to death.

Another important take away from this murder was the introduction of a gloves kit, test tubes, magnifying glasses and fingerprinting equipment to the Scotland Yard the following year. This resulted from Spilsbury’s observation of a detective collecting Kaye’s remains with bare hands and without proper gears.

2. A human chemical formula – The Case of the Dissolved Wife

Adolph Louis Luetgert was a well-known name back in the 1800’s Chicago. First, as the “Sausage King of Chicago” who ran a flourishing sausage and packing company in Chicago. And then in 1897 as the man who murdered his wife and cold-heartedly dissolved her body in lye in his own factory!

It all started with his wife, Louisa, mysteriously going missing one night. Although Luetgert claimed that she ran away with another man, the police investigating the case quickly suspected a foul play. Eyewitnesses confirmed having seen Luetgert enter the factory with his wife the night she went missing. And it was when they searched his sausage factory that the events of a ghastly murder started falling into place.

Inside his factory, the police discovered a tank full of foul smelling liquid in the cellar. The vat on draining revealed pieces of bone, strands of hair, bits of cloth and even two of Louisa’s rings. Additionally, the police found human remains in one of the furnaces in the factory. Eventually, the police also recovered bills showing the purchase of arsenic and potash by Luetgert a day before the murder.

Back in the 19th century, it was difficult to prove a murder devoid of a body. It was an early forensic anthropologist, George Dorsey, who confirmed that the bone fragments recovered from the site belonged to Louisa. This and the available circumstantial evidence were enough to convict Adolph Luetgert of the cold-blooded murder of his wife.

3. The high profile Lindbergh Kidnapping

The Lindbergh Kidnapping created a worldwide uproar back in 1932 and was termed as the “Trial of the Century”. Charles Augustus Lindbergh was an American aviator who created history by flying the first solo transatlantic flight. He was a popular figure and the world watched over him and his family like hawks. That is why on March 1, 1932, when his 20-month-old baby, Charles Lindbergh Jr., was kidnapped right from the crib where he was put down to sleep, the whole world followed with rapt attention.

Although a ransom of $50,000 was paid eventually, the baby was never returned to the family. A few months later, in May, the baby’s decomposed body was discovered in the woods a few miles from Lindbergh’s home. Over the next 30 months, the bills used in the ransom payments were rigorously tracked by the police. They distributed nearly 250,000 pamphlets bearing the serial numbers on the ransom bills across several businesses in New York City. Finally, on September 18, 1934, a tip-off led police to Bruno Hauptmann, an immigrant with a criminal record in Germany.

They recovered over $14,000 of the ransom money from his garage along with a notebook depicting a sketch for the construction of a ladder. This ladder was similar to the makeshift ladder found at the kidnapping site in March 1932. A section of wood recovered from the attic of Hauptmann’s house became a major evidence in his conviction.

The investigation of this case witnessed one of the first application of early forensics in the rigorous analysis of evidence. It involved the prosecutors engaging fingerprint specialists, handwriting analysts and a xylotomist (a wood structure specialist). The handwriting experts confirmed that the handwriting on the ransom notes was that of Hauptmann. Additionally, the wood grain expert matched the wood used in the makeshift ladder to a woodcut from Hauptmann’s attic. In fact, the tool marks on the ladder actually matched the tools found in his possession. Finally, Bruno Hauptmann was convicted and executed in 1936.

4. The case of the “Vampire Rapist”

Back in the late 1960s, the streets in Montreal would be gripped in constant fear and apprehension. This is because a 26-year-old charming, sexual sadist was lurking in the open. Wayne Clifford Boden, believed to be a patron of sadomasochism, had a penchant for raping young women and killing them by strangulation while leaving his bite marks on their breasts. For nearly two years, he single-handedly staged a reign of terror with attacks that shook the world with its horrific and barbaric ferocity.

The ghastly adversity first struck Norma Villancourt, a 21-year-old Montreal-based teacher, on 23 July 1968. She was found dead in her apartment, raped and strangled, and with savage bite marks on her breasts. However, what was strange was the soft, submissive smile that her face had when the body was discovered! Within a year, the body of another young woman, Shirley Audette, was found dumped behind an apartment in Montreal. Although her body was fully clothed, she had been raped and strangulated and had similar bite marks on her breasts. This was followed by two similar incidents in Montreal where the women were raped, strangled and bitten on their breasts.

All the aforesaid killings had some very discernable things in common – strangulation, sexual assault and savage bite marks on the breasts. Except for two, in all the other cases the victim was found to be fully clothed without any signs of forced entry or struggle near the murder scene. This led investigators to believe that the victim knew Boden from before and would have engaged in consensual sadomasochism.

Eventually, the Montreal killings had died down by 1971. But just when the city was about to breathe a sigh of relief, terror struck again. This time it was 2500 miles to the west of Montreal in the city of Calgary. The “Vampire Rapist” as he was dubbed had now targeted a 33-year-old school teacher named Elizabeth Anne Porteous. Her sexually assaulted and strangulated body was found inside her apartment with her breasts severely mutilated. In this case, the murder scene displayed a clear show of struggle before the murder and the police were even able to retrieve a broken cufflink under her body.

It was the mention of a blue Mercedes having a distinct bull-shaped decal in the rear window that her colleagues had last seen her in that led the police to Wayne Boden. He was arrested just the next day when he was found approaching the blue Mercedes parked outside the crime scene. A forensic orthodontist, Gordon Swann, matched the bite marks found on his last victim with Boden’s teeth. He made a cast out of Boden’s teeth to show 29 points of similarity between his teeth and the bite marks on Porteous’ body. This was sufficient evidence to prove him guilty of her murder and sentence him to life imprisonment. Though he never confessed to his involvement in Norma Villancourt’s death, he eventually confessed to other three related murders.

5. The Murderer Doctor – Jeffrey MacDonald

It is not every day that one gets to hear about a doctor turning into a life taker instead of being a life giver. One such day was the morning of February 17, 1970, when Army doctor – Jeffrey MacDonald’s family was ‘supposedly’ attacked. While he managed to escape with minor wounds, his pregnant wife and two young daughters died due to multiple stabs. He claimed that the attack was executed by four suspects and that he tried to protect his family by warding off the attackers with this pajama top.

However, investigating officers developed their doubts quite early on his rendition of the event. This was because the physical evidence found at the crime scene did not show any forced entry or struggle. Thus, pointing the suspicion at Jeffrey MacDonald being the killer. Although the case was soon dropped due to the unavailability of sound forensic techniques, it resurfaced again several years later.

That was when a forensic scientist testified in the court that the doctor’s pajama top which he apparently used to fend off the attackers had 48 clean holes which were too smooth for the otherwise violent nature of the attack! The forensic scientist also revealed that the 48 holes in the top could be easily obtained if the top is folded and acted upon by 21 thrusts – the same number of stabs found on MacDonald’s wife’s body. Furthermore, the holes perfectly matched the form of the wounds inflicted upon her.

Also, the fibers from MacDonald’s torn pajama top were never found in the living room where he alleged that the scuffle took place. Instead, the fibers were recovered in his daughters’ bedrooms, under his wife’s dead body, and under his younger daughter’s fingernails. The murder weapons were found outside the back door of his house.

Based on the evidence found, a forensic reconstruction clearly suggested that MacDonald had laid the folded pajama top on his wife prior to stabbing her. This was crucial in his conviction in 1979 when he sentenced to life imprisonment for all the three murders.

Incognito Forensic Foundation (IFF Lab) – Redefining Forensic Criminology

Incognito Forensic Foundation (IFF Lab) is a premier private forensic lab in India – headquartered in Chennai and having an office in Bangalore. Equipped with a state-of-the-art forensic laboratory and skilled forensic experts, it has earned a reputable name in the forensic domain. They leverage the latest forensic techniques and tools in getting to the bottom of a case. IFF Lab has assisted the law enforcement agencies of various states in the investigation of complex criminal cases .

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Forensic Computer Crime Investigations – Case Studies & Testimonials

Data Clinic Ltd provide independent forensic analysis and expert witness in matters involving prosecution and defence. We are instructed by the legal profession, UK police forces, The Standards Board for England, The Department of Works and Pensions etc.

Recent instructions given to the Data Clinic include cases involving:

Below is a small selection of example cases we have been involved in.

Data Clinic Reference: Case FOR1x15

Client: Trade Union representing a University Professor

Allegation:

The university alleged that the Professor had been downloading inappropriate images and terminated his employment. The university had given the Professor”s computer system to a well known computer forensics company who had provided a report that backed up the university”s allegation.

Findings: Our analysis of the Professor”s computer system showed that he was in fact innocent. The material was being downloaded by another person who had logged into the system using the professor”s details and had maliciously attempted to incriminate him.

Outcome: We supplied our findings to the Professor”s barrister. The other computer forensics company withdrew their evidence, and the University agreed to pay the Professor a sum in the region of £90,000 for unfair dismissal.

Data Clinic Reference: Case FOR12x9

Client: Hampshire Police Force

Overview: A house had been raided by the police and the computer equipment seized. The equipment included a laptop hard disk that the police were not able to access.

Outcome: The hard disk (a Fujitsu MH series) had developed a firmware fault which prevented access to the data. We were able to repair this problem and the drive”s data became accessible & was returned to the police.

Data Clinic Reference: Case FOR1x09

Client: The Standards Board for England

Allegation: A councillor was accused of downloading indecent images to his PC. We were asked by the Standards Board to investigate this.

Outcome: The councillor had downloaded a quantity of indecent material.

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Limits are being introduced on the time for which the DNA of people who have been arrested but not convicted can be held on an official database.

How important is DNA to the police? Here are some of the key recent stories - and the role of DNA and the database in what happened.

One of the most important recent cases was the murder of Sally Anne Bowman in 2005. A massive police investigation failed to track down the teenager's killer but drew a blank.

However, forensics officers successfully obtained a DNA sample from Ms Bowman which they suspected belonged to the killer. The following year, a pub chef called Mark Dixie was arrested after a fight and swabbed under the standard procedures.

When his sample was converted into a profile, the database alerted officers of a match to the Bowman crime scene. He was jailed for 34 years - and may never have been caught had it not been for the match. Model's killer loses appeal bid

Birmingham man Abdul Azad was arrested for violent disorder in February 2005 and DNA swabbed, but then released without charge. Under the rules of some countries, his sample would be destroyed and his profile deleted from the database.

Later the same year, a woman was subjected to a serious sexual assault by a stranger 25 miles away in Stafford.

Police had no clues to the attacker's identity. However, forensics officers managed to recover a tiny sample of skin from underneath the woman's fingernails. It was profiled and the database flashed up a link to Azad. He was jailed for six years for sexual assault.

The senior officer in the case said at the time: "We would never have caught him had his DNA not already been on the database - he didn't even live locally so we had no intelligence leads either."

Staffordshire Police have declined to provide the BBC with a picture of Azad.

Genetic fingerprinting is an evolving science. In 1995 a woman was raped at Otford Railway Station in Kent. Police recovered a very poor quality sample of DNA from the woman's clothing.

Five years later, Jason Clark was arrested for a drugs offence and sampled. The database flashed a possible match with the rape - but officers dropped the investigation because the match was not good enough.

In 2007 officers returned to the case, knowing that advances in DNA profiling technology meant they could get more conclusive evidence from their poor sample.

They succeeded in proving the DNA belonged to Clark and he was jailed for eight and half years in November 2008.

Rapist jailed after 1995 attack

Sean Hodgson, 57, was sentenced to life in prison for the December 1979 killing of 22-year-old gas board worker Teresa De Simone.

He spent 30 years in prison on the basis of a false confession and a blood sample match he shared with many other men.

Mr Hodgson's lawyer, Julian Young, was key to ending this miscarriage of justice because he tracked down in storage the original police sample of semen recovered from Ms De Simone's body.

Had the database been operational in 1979, the jury at his trial would have known that Mr Hodgson's unique genetic profile did not match the sample recovered from the scene. Man's 1979 murder verdict quashed

Counter-terrorism officers involved in the 7 July suicide bombings investigations recovered many samples of DNA from the bomb factory in Leeds.

Some of these matched the bombers - and others did not. In 2007 they charged three Leeds men with helping the attackers. The trial primarily focused on other allegations - but it also included evidence of the trio's DNA found on items in the bomb factory.

The defence were able to show to the jury however that there was nothing to link the men to the actual property - only items that had been taken inside because they knew the men who carried out the attacks.

This case shows how tenuous DNA evidence can be in some cases. As with many other investigations, police will retain the DNA profiles gathered from the bomb factory in case they link them in the future to anyone else. Trio cleared over 7/7 attacks

Teenager Kathryn Lay from Essex was arrested after being wrongly named as playing a part in some trouble on a school bus.

She was held in a police cell and made to give a mouth swab to provide a DNA sample. Within an hour, officers realised her arrest was a mistake and that she had nothing to do with the trouble.

She was released without charge. Her mother asked Essex Police to destroy the DNA sample - and they refused, citing national policy. Kathryn now says she has lost faith in the police - the irony being that her late father was a serving officer for 20 years. Innocent - but battling a DNA record

John Cann was walking along the street, minding his own business, when he saw a violent drunken man assaulting a woman and trying to smash her windscreen. He stepped in at personal risk to pull the man off the woman and restrain him while police were called. The drunk attacked Mr Cann and knocked him down with an enormous punch.

When police arrived, they arrested Mr Cann, despite witnesses protesting that he was a hero. They made him give a DNA sample which was added to the database. Police only agreed to erase the profile after a campaign backed by the man's MP and a national newspaper.

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