- Reference Manager
- Simple TEXT file
People also looked at
Systematic review article, levels of reading comprehension in higher education: systematic review and meta-analysis.
- 1 Departamento de Métodos de Investigación y Diagnóstico en Educación, Universidad Internacional de la Rioja, Logroño, Spain
- 2 Department of Theory and History of Education and Research Methods and Diagnosis in Education, University of Malaga, Málaga, Spain
Higher education aims for university students to produce knowledge from the critical reflection of scientific texts. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a deep mental representation of written information. The objective of this research was to determine through a systematic review and meta-analysis the proportion of university students who have an optimal performance at each level of reading comprehension. Systematic review of empirical studies has been limited from 2010 to March 2021 using the Web of Science, Scopus, Medline, and PsycINFO databases. Two reviewers performed data extraction independently. A random-effects model of proportions was used for the meta-analysis and heterogeneity was assessed with I 2 . To analyze the influence of moderating variables, meta-regression was used and two ways were used to study publication bias. Seven articles were identified with a total sample of the seven of 1,044. The proportion of students at the literal level was 56% (95% CI = 39–72%, I 2 = 96.3%), inferential level 33% (95% CI = 19–46%, I 2 = 95.2%), critical level 22% (95% CI = 9–35%, I 2 = 99.04%), and organizational level 22% (95% CI = 6–37%, I 2 = 99.67%). Comparing reading comprehension levels, there is a significant higher proportion of university students who have an optimal level of literal compared to the rest of the reading comprehension levels. The results have to be interpreted with caution but are a guide for future research.
Introduction
Reading comprehension allows the integration of knowledge that facilitates training processes and successful coping with academic and personal situations. In higher education, this reading comprehension has to provide students with autonomy to self-direct their academic-professional learning and provide critical thinking in favor of community service ( UNESCO, 2009 ). However, research in recent years ( Bharuthram, 2012 ; Afflerbach et al., 2015 ) indicates that a part of university students are not prepared to successfully deal with academic texts or they have reading difficulties ( Smagorinsky, 2001 ; Cox et al., 2014 ), which may limit academic training focused on written texts. This work aims to review the level of reading comprehension provided by studies carried out in different countries, considering the heterogeneity of existing educational models.
The level of reading comprehension refers to the type of mental representation that is made of the written text. The reader builds a mental model in which he can integrate explicit and implicit data from the text, experiences, and previous knowledge ( Kucer, 2016 ; van den Broek et al., 2016 ). Within the framework of the construction-integration model ( Kintsch and van Dijk, 1978 ; Kintsch, 1998 ), the most accepted model of reading comprehension, processing levels are differentiated, specifically: A superficial level that identifies or memorizes data forming the basis of the text and a deep level in which the text situation model is elaborated integrating previous experiences and knowledge. At these levels of processing, the cognitive strategies used, are different according to the domain-learning model ( Alexander, 2004 ) from basic coding to a transformation of the text. In the scientific literature, there are investigations ( Yussof et al., 2013 ; Ulum, 2016 ) that also identify levels of reading comprehension ranging from a literal level of identification of ideas to an inferential and critical level that require the elaboration of inferences and the data transformation.
Studies focused on higher education ( Barletta et al., 2005 ; Yáñez Botello, 2013 ) show that university students are at a literal or basic level of understanding, they often have difficulties in making inferences and recognizing the macrostructure of the written text, so they would not develop a model of a situation of the text. These scientific results are in the same direction as the research on reading comprehension in the mother tongue in the university population. Bharuthram (2012) indicates that university students do not access or develop effective strategies for reading comprehension, such as the capacity for abstraction and synthesis-analysis. Later, Livingston et al. (2015) find that first-year education students present limited reading strategies and difficulties in understanding written texts. Ntereke and Ramoroka (2017) found that only 12.4% of students perform well in a reading comprehension task, 34.3% presenting a low level of execution in the task.
Factors related to the level of understanding of written information are the mode of presentation of the text (printed vs. digital), the type of metacognitive strategies used (planning, making inferences, inhibition, monitoring, etc.), the type of text and difficulties (novel vs. a science passage), the mode of writing (text vs. multimodal), the type of reading comprehension task, and the diversity of the student. For example, several studies ( Tuncer and Bahadir, 2014 ; Trakhman et al., 2019 ; Kazazoglu, 2020 ) indicate that reading is more efficient with better performance in reading comprehension tests in printed texts compared to the same text in digital and according to Spencer (2006) college students prefer to read in print vs. digital texts. In reading the written text, metacognitive strategies are involved ( Amril et al., 2019 ) but studies ( Channa et al., 2018 ) seem to indicate that students do not use them for reading comprehension, specifically; Korotaeva (2012) finds that only 7% of students use them. Concerning the type of text and difficulties, for Wolfe and Woodwyk (2010) , expository texts benefit more from the construction of a situational model of the text than narrative texts, although Feng (2011) finds that expository texts are more difficult to read than narrative texts. Regarding the modality of the text, Mayer (2009) and Guo et al. (2020) indicate that multimodal texts that incorporate images into the text positively improve reading comprehension. In a study of Kobayashi (2002) using open questions, close, and multiple-choice shows that the type and format of the reading comprehension assessment test significantly influence student performance and that more structured tests help to better differentiate the good ones and the poor ones in reading comprehension. Finally, about student diversity, studies link reading comprehension with the interest and intrinsic motivation of university students ( Cartwright et al., 2019 ; Dewi et al., 2020 ), with gender ( Saracaloglu and Karasakaloglu, 2011 ), finding that women present a better level of reading comprehension than men and with knowledge related to reading ( Perfetti et al., 1987 ). In this research, it was controlled that all were printed and unimodal texts, that is, only text. This is essential because the cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension can vary with these factors ( Butcher and Kintsch, 2003 ; Xu et al., 2020 ).
The Present Study
Regardless of the educational context, in any university discipline, preparing essays or developing arguments are formative tasks that require a deep level of reading comprehension (inferences and transformation of information) that allows the elaboration of a situation model, and not having this level can lead to limited formative learning. Therefore, the objective of this research was to know the state of reading comprehension levels in higher education; specifically, the proportion of university students who perform optimally at each level of reading comprehension. It is important to note that there is not much information about the different levels in university students and that it is the only meta-analytic review that explores different levels of reading comprehension in this educational stage. This is a relevant issue because the university system requires that students produce knowledge from the critical reflection of scientific texts, preparing them for innovation, employability, and coexistence in society.
Materials and Methods
Eligibility criteria: inclusion and exclusion.
Empirical studies written in Spanish or English are selected that analyze the reading comprehension level in university students.
The exclusion criteria are as follows: (a) book chapters or review books or publications; (b) articles in other languages; (c) studies of lower educational levels; (d) articles that do not identify the age of the sample; (e) second language studies; (f) students with learning difficulties or other disorders; (g) publications that do not indicate the level of reading comprehension; (h) studies that relate reading competence with other variables but do not report reading comprehension levels; (i) pre-post program application work; (j) studies with experimental and control groups; (k) articles comparing pre-university stages or adults; (l) publications that use multi-texts; (m) studies that use some type of technology (computer, hypertext, web, psychophysiological, online questionnaire, etc.); and (n) studies unrelated to the subject of interest.
Only those publications that meet the following criteria are included as: (a) be empirical research (article, thesis, final degree/master’s degree, or conference proceedings book); (b) university stage; (c) include data or some measure on the level of reading comprehension that allows calculating the effect size; (d) written in English or Spanish; (e) reading comprehension in the first language or mother tongue; and (f) the temporary period from January 2010 to March 2021.
Search Strategies
A three-step procedure is used to select the studies included in the meta-analysis. In the first step, a review of research and empirical articles in English and Spanish from January 2010 to March 2021. The search is carried out in online databases of languages in Spanish and English, such as Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, Medline, and PsycINFO, to review empirical productions that analyze the level of reading comprehension in university students. In the second step, the following terms (titles, abstracts, keywords, and full text) are used to select the articles: Reading comprehension and higher education, university students, in Spanish and English, combined with the Boolean operators AND and OR. In the last step, secondary sources, such as the Google search engine, Theseus, and references in publications, are explored.
The search reports 4,294 publications (articles, theses, and conference proceedings books) in the databases and eight records of secondary references, specifically, 1989 from WoS, 2001 from Scopus, 42 from Medline, and 262 of PsycINFO. Of the total (4,294), 1,568 are eliminated due to duplications, leaving 2,734 valid records. Next, titles and abstracts are reviewed and 2,659 are excluded because they do not meet the inclusion criteria. The sample of 75 publications is reduced to 40 articles, excluding 35 because the full text cannot be accessed (the authors were contacted but did not respond), the full text did not show specific statistical data, they used online questionnaires or computerized presentations of the text. Finally, seven articles in Spanish were selected for use in the meta-analysis of the reading comprehension level of university students. Data additional to those included in the articles were not requested from the selected authors.
The PRISMA-P guidelines ( Moher et al., 2015 ) are followed to perform the meta-analysis and the flow chart for the selection of publications relevant to the subject is exposed (Figure 1) .
Figure 1 . Flow diagram for the selection of articles.
Encoding Procedure
This research complies with what is established in the manual of systematic reviews ( Higgins and Green, 2008 ) in which clear objectives, specific search terms, and eligibility criteria for previously defined works are established. Two independent coders, reaching a 100% agreement, carry out the study search process. Subsequently, the research is codified, for this, a coding protocol is used as a guide to help resolve the ambiguities between the coders; the proposals are reflected and discussed and discrepancies are resolved, reaching a degree of agreement between the two coders of 97%.
For all studies, the reference, country, research objective, sample size, age and gender, reading comprehension test, other tests, and reading comprehension results were coded in percentages. All this information was later systematized in Table 1 .
Table 1 . Results of the empirical studies included in the meta-analysis.
In relation to the type of reading comprehension level, it was coded based on the levels of the scientific literature as follows: 1 = literal; 2 = inferential; 3 = critical; and 4 = organizational.
Regarding the possible moderating variables, it was coded if the investigations used a standardized reading comprehension measure (value = 1) or non-standardized (value = 0). This research considers the standardized measures of reading comprehension as the non-standardized measures created by the researchers themselves in their studies or questionnaires by other authors. By the type of evaluation test, we encode between multiple-choice (value = 0) or multiple-choices plus open question (value = 1). By type of text, we encode between argumentative (value = 1) or unknown (value = 0). By the type of career, we encode social sciences (value = 1) or other careers (health sciences; value = 0). Moreover, by the type of publication, we encode between article (value = 1) or doctoral thesis (value = 0).
Effect Size and Statistical Analysis
This descriptive study with a sample k = 7 and a population of 1,044 university students used a continuous variable and the proportions were used as the effect size to analyze the proportion of students who had an optimal performance at each level of reading comprehension. As for the percentages of each level of reading comprehension of the sample, they were transformed into absolute frequencies. A random-effects model ( Borenstein et al., 2009 ) was used as the effect size. These random-effects models have a greater capacity to generalize the conclusions and allow estimating the effects of different sources of variation (moderating variables). The DerSimonian and Laird method ( Egger et al., 2001 ) was used, calculating raw proportion and for each proportion its standard error, value of p and 95% confidence interval (CI).
To examine sampling variability, Cochran’s Q test (to test the null hypothesis of homogeneity between studies) and I 2 (proportion of variability) were used. According to Higgins et al. (2003) , if I 2 reaches 25%, it is considered low, if it reaches 50% and if it exceeds 75% it is considered high. A meta-regression analysis was used to investigate the effect of the moderator variables (type of measure, type of evaluation test, type of text, type of career, and type of publication) in each level of reading comprehension of the sample studies. For each moderating variable, all the necessary statistics were calculated (estimate, standard error, CI, Q , and I 2 ).
To compare the effect sizes of each level (literal, inferential, critical, and organizational) of reading comprehension, the chi-square test for the proportion recommended by Campbell (2007) was used.
Finally, to analyze publication bias, this study uses two ways: Rosenthal’s fail-safe number and regression test. Rosenthal’s fail-safe number shows the number of missing studies with null effects that would make the previous correlations insignificant ( Borenstein et al., 2009 ). When the values are large there is no bias. In the regression test, when the regression is not significant, there is no bias.
The software used to classify and encode data and produce descriptive statistics was with Microsoft Excel and the Jamovi version 1.6 free software was used to perform the meta-analysis.
The results of the meta-analysis are presented in three parts: the general descriptive analysis of the included studies; the meta-analytic analysis with the effect size, heterogeneity, moderating variables, and comparison of effect sizes; and the study of publication bias.
Overview of Included Studies
The search carried out of the scientific literature related to the subject published from 2010 to March 2021 generated a small number of publications, because it was limited to the higher education stage and required clear statistical data on reading comprehension.
Table 1 presents all the publications reviewed in this meta-analysis with a total of students evaluated in the reviewed works that amounts to 1,044, with the smallest sample size of 30 ( Del Pino-Yépez et al., 2019 ) and the largest with 570 ( Guevara Benítez et al., 2014 ). Regarding gender, 72% women and 28% men were included. Most of the sample comes from university degrees in social sciences, such as psychology and education (71.42%) followed by health sciences (14.28%) engineering and a publication (14.28%) that does not indicate origin. These publications selected according to the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis come from more countries with a variety of educational systems, but all from South America. Specifically, the countries that have more studies are Mexico (28.57%) and Colombia, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador with 14.28% each, respectively. The years in which they were published are 2.57% in 2018 and 2016 and 14.28% in 2019, 2014, and 2013.
A total of 57% of the studies analyze four levels of reading comprehension (literal, inferential, critical, and organizational) and 43% investigate three levels of reading comprehension (literal, inferential, and critical). Based on the moderating variables, 57% of the studies use standardized reading comprehension measures and 43% non-standardized measures. According to the evaluation test used, 29% use multiple-choice questions and 71% combine multiple-choice questions plus open questions. 43% use an argumentative text and 57% other types of texts (not indicated in studies). By type of career, 71% are students of social sciences and 29% of other different careers, such as engineering or health sciences. In addition, 71% are articles and 29% with research works (thesis and degree works).
Table 2 shows the reading comprehension assessment instruments used by the authors of the empirical research integrated into the meta-analysis.
Table 2 . Reading comprehension assessment tests used in higher education.
Meta-Analytic Analysis of the Level of Reading Comprehension
The literal level presents a mean proportion effect size of 56% (95% CI = 39–72%; Figure 2 ). The variability between the different samples of the literal level of reading comprehension was significant ( Q = 162.066, p < 0.001; I 2 = 96.3%). No moderating variable used in this research had a significant contribution to heterogeneity: type of measurement ( p = 0.520), type of test ( p = 0.114), type of text ( p = 0.520), type of career ( p = 0.235), and type of publication ( p = 0.585). The high variability is explained by other factors not considered in this work, such as the characteristics of the students (cognitive abilities) or other issues.
Figure 2 . Forest plot of literal level.
The inferential level presents a mean proportion effect size of 33% (95% CI = 19–46%; Figure 3 ). The variability between the different samples of the inferential level of reading comprehension was significant ( Q = 125.123, p < 0.001; I 2 = 95.2%). The type of measure ( p = 0.011) and the type of text ( p = 0.011) had a significant contribution to heterogeneity. The rest of the variables had no significance: type of test ( p = 0.214), type of career ( p = 0.449), and type of publication ( p = 0.218). According to the type of measure, the proportion of students who have an optimal level in inferential administering a standardized test is 28.7% less than when a non-standardized test is administered. The type of measure reduces variability by 2.57% and explains the differences between the results of the studies at the inferential level. According to the type of text, the proportion of students who have an optimal level in inferential using an argumentative text is 28.7% less than when using another type of text. The type of text reduces the variability by 2.57% and explains the differences between the results of the studies at the inferential level.
Figure 3 . Forest plot of inferential level.
The critical level has a mean effect size of the proportion of 22% (95% CI = 9–35%; Figure 4 ). The variability between the different samples of the critical level of reading comprehension was significant ( Q = 627.044, p < 0.001; I 2 = 99.04%). No moderating variable used in this research had a significant contribution to heterogeneity: type of measurement ( p = 0.575), type of test ( p = 0.691), type of text ( p = 0.575), type of career ( p = 0.699), and type of publication ( p = 0.293). The high variability is explained by other factors not considered in this work, such as the characteristics of the students (cognitive abilities).
Figure 4 . Forest plot of critical level.
The organizational level presents a mean effect size of the proportion of 22% (95% CI = 6–37%; Figure 5 ). The variability between the different samples of the organizational level of reading comprehension was significant ( Q = 1799.366, p < 0.001; I 2 = 99.67%). The type of test made a significant contribution to heterogeneity ( p = 0.289). The other moderating variables were not significant in this research: type of measurement ( p = 0.289), type of text ( p = 0.289), type of career ( p = 0.361), and type of publication ( p = 0.371). Depending on the type of test, the proportion of students who have an optimal level in organizational with multiple-choices tests plus open questions is 37% higher than while using only multiple-choice tests. The type of text reduces the variability by 0.27% and explains the differences between the results of the studies at the organizational level.
Figure 5 . Forest plot of organizational level.
Table 3 shows the difference between the estimated effect sizes and the significance. There is a larger proportion of students having an optimal level of reading comprehension at the literal level compared to the inferential, critical, and organizational level; an optimal level of reading comprehension at the inferential level vs. the critical and organizational level.
Table 3 . Results of effect size comparison.
Analysis of Publication Bias
This research uses two ways to verify the existence of bias independently of the sample size. Table 4 shows the results and there is no publication bias at any level of reading comprehension.
Table 4 . Publication bias results.
This research used a systematic literature search and meta-analysis to provide estimates of the number of cases of university students who have an optimal level in the different levels of reading comprehension. All the information available on the subject at the international level was analyzed using international databases in English and Spanish, but the potentially relevant publications were limited. Only seven Spanish language studies were identified internationally. In these seven studies, the optimal performance at each level of reading comprehension varied, finding heterogeneity associated with the very high estimates, which indicates that the summary estimates have to be interpreted with caution and in the context of the sample and the variables used in this meta-analysis.
In this research, the effects of the type of measure, type of test, type of text, type of career, and type of publication have been analyzed. Due to the limited information in the publications, it was not possible to assess the effect of any more moderating variables.
We found that some factors significantly influence heterogeneity according to the level of reading comprehension considered. The type of measure influenced the optimal performance of students in the inferential level of reading comprehension; specifically, the proportion of students who have an optimal level in inferential worsens if the test is standardized. Several studies ( Pike, 1996 ; Koretz, 2002 ) identify differences between standardized and non-standardized measures in reading comprehension and a favor of non-standardized measures developed by the researchers ( Pyle et al., 2017 ). The ability to generate inferences of each individual may difficult to standardize because each person differently identifies the relationship between the parts of the text and integrates it with their previous knowledge ( Oakhill, 1982 ; Cain et al., 2004 ). This mental representation of the meaning of the text is necessary to create a model of the situation and a deep understanding ( McNamara and Magliano, 2009 ; van den Broek and Espin, 2012 ).
The type of test was significant for the organizational level of reading comprehension. The proportion of students who have an optimal level in organizational improves if the reading comprehension assessment test is multiple-choice plus open questions. The organizational level requires the reordering of written information through analysis and synthesis processes ( Guevara Benítez et al., 2014 ); therefore, it constitutes a production task that is better reflected in open questions than in reproduction questions as multiple choice ( Dinsmore and Alexander, 2015 ). McNamara and Kintsch (1996) identify that open tasks require an effort to make inferences related to previous knowledge and multidisciplinary knowledge. Important is to indicate that different evaluation test formats can measure different aspects of reading comprehension ( Zheng et al., 2007 ).
The type of text significantly influenced the inferential level of reading comprehension. The proportion of students who have an optimal level in inferential decreases with an argumentative text. The expectations created before an argumentative text made it difficult to generate inferences and, therefore, the construction of the meaning of the text. This result is in the opposite direction to the study by Diakidoy et al. (2011) who find that the refutation text, such as the argumentative one, facilitates the elaboration of inferences compared to other types of texts. It is possible that the argumentative text, given its dialogical nature of arguments and counterarguments, with a subject unknown by the students, has determined the decrease of inferences based on their scarce previous knowledge of the subject, needing help to elaborate the structure of the text read ( Reznitskaya et al., 2007 ). It should be pointed out that in meta-analysis studies, 43% use argumentative texts. Knowing the type of the text is relevant for generating inferences, for instance, according to Baretta et al. (2009) the different types of text are processed differently in the brain generating more or fewer inferences; specifically, using the N400 component, they find that expository texts generate more inferences from the text read.
For the type of career and the type of publication, no significance was found at any level of reading comprehension in this sample. This seems to indicate that university students have the same level of performance in tasks of literal, critical inferential, and organizational understanding regardless of whether they are studying social sciences, health sciences, or engineering. Nor does the type of publication affect the state of the different levels of reading comprehension in higher education.
The remaining high heterogeneity at all levels of reading comprehension was not captured in this review, indicating that there are other factors, such as student characteristics, gender, or other issues, that are moderating and explaining the variability at the literal, inferential, critical, and organizational reading comprehension in university students.
To the comparison between the different levels of reading comprehension, the literal level has a significantly higher proportion of students with an optimal level than the inferential, critical, and organizational levels. The inferential level has a significantly higher proportion of students with an optimal level than the critical and organizational levels. This corresponds with data from other investigations ( Márquez et al., 2016 ; Del Pino-Yépez et al., 2019 ) that indicate that the literal level is where university students execute with more successes, being more difficult and with less success at the inferential, organizational, and critical levels. This indicates that university students of this sample do not generate a coherent situation model that provides them with a global mental representation of the read text according to the model of Kintsch (1998) , but rather they make a literal analysis of the explicit content of the read text. This level of understanding can lead to less desirable results in educational terms ( Dinsmore and Alexander, 2015 ).
The educational implications of this meta-analysis in this sample are aimed at making universities aware of the state of reading comprehension levels possessed by university students and designing strategies (courses and workshops) to optimize it by improving the training and employability of students. Some proposals can be directed to the use of reflection tasks, integration of information, graphic organizers, evaluation, interpretation, nor the use of paraphrasing ( Rahmani, 2011 ). Some studies ( Hong-Nam and Leavell, 2011 ; Parr and Woloshyn, 2013 ) demonstrate the effectiveness of instructional courses in improving performance in reading comprehension and metacognitive strategies. In addition, it is necessary to design reading comprehension assessment tests in higher education that are balanced, validated, and reliable, allowing to have data for the different levels of reading comprehension.
Limitations and Conclusion
This meta-analysis can be used as a starting point to report on reading comprehension levels in higher education, but the results should be interpreted with caution and in the context of the study sample and variables. Publications without sufficient data and inaccessible articles, with a sample of seven studies, may have limited the international perspective. The interest in studying reading comprehension in the mother tongue, using only unimodal texts, without the influence of technology and with English and Spanish has also limited the review. The limited amount of data in the studies has limited meta-regression.
This review is a guide to direct future research, broadening the study focus on the level of reading comprehension using digital technology, experimental designs, second languages, and investigations that relate reading comprehension with other factors (gender, cognitive abilities, etc.) that can explain the heterogeneity in the different levels of reading comprehension. The possibility of developing a comprehensive reading comprehension assessment test in higher education could also be explored.
This review contributes to the scientific literature in several ways. In the first place, this meta-analytic review is the only one that analyzes the proportion of university students who have an optimal performance in the different levels of reading comprehension. This review is made with international publications and this topic is mostly investigated in Latin America. Second, optimal performance can be improved at all levels of reading comprehension, fundamentally inferential, critical, and organizational. The literal level is significantly the level of reading comprehension with the highest proportion of optimal performance in university students. Third, the students in this sample have optimal performance at the inferential level when they are non-argumentative texts and non-standardized measures, and, in the analyzed works, there is optimal performance at the organizational level when multiple-choice questions plus open questions are used.
The current research is linked to the research project “Study of reading comprehension in higher education” of Asociación Educar para el Desarrollo Humano from Argentina.
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Author Contributions
Cd-l-P had the idea for the article and analyzed the data. ML-R searched the data. Cd-l-P and ML-R selected the data and contributed to the valuable comments and manuscript writing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This paper was funded by the Universidad Internacional de la Rioja and Universidad de Málaga.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The handling editor declared a shared affiliation though no other collaboration with one of the authors ML-R at the time of the review.
Publisher’s Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Afflerbach, P., Cho, B.-Y., and Kim, J.-Y. (2015). Conceptualizing and assessing higher-order thinking in reading. Theory Pract. 54, 203–212. doi: 10.1080/00405841.2015.1044367
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Alexander, P. A. (2004). “A model of domain learning: reinterpreting expertise as a multidimensional, multistage process,” in Motivation, Emotion, and Cognition: Integrative Perspectives on Intellectual Functioning and Development. eds. D. Y. Dai and R. J. Sternberg (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum), 273–298.
Google Scholar
Amril, A., Hasanuddin, W. S., and Atmazaki, (2019). The contributions of reading strategies and reading frequencies toward students’ reading comprehension skill in higher education. Int. J. Eng. Adv. Technol. (IJEAT) 8, 593–595. doi: 10.35940/ijeat.F1105.0986S319
Baretta, L., Braga Tomitch, L. M., MacNair, N., Kwan Lim, V., and Waldie, K. E. (2009). Inference making while reading narrative and expository texts: an ERP study. Psychol. Neurosci. 2, 137–145. doi: 10.3922/j.psns.2009.2.005
Barletta, M., Bovea, V., Delgado, P., Del Villar, L., Lozano, A., May, O., et al. (2005). Comprensión y Competencias Lectoras en Estudiantes Universitarios. Barranquilla: Uninorte.
Bharuthram, S. (2012). Making a case for the teaching of reading across the curriculum in higher education. S. Afr. J. Educ. 32, 205–214. doi: 10.15700/saje.v32n2a557
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., and Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-Analysis. United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, 45–49.
Butcher, K. R., and Kintsch, W. (2003). “Text comprehension and discourse processing,” in Handbook of Psychology: Experimental Psychology. 2nd Edn . Vol . 4. eds. A. F. Healy, R. W. Proctor, and I. B. Weiner (New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 575–595.
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., and Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. J. Educ. Psychol. 96, 31–42. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31
Campbell, I. (2007). Chi-squared and Fisher-Irwin tests of two-by-two tables with small sample recommendations. Stat. Med. 26, 3661–3675. doi: 10.1002/sim.2832
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cartwright, K. B., Lee, S. A., Barber, A. T., DeWyngaert, L. U., Lane, A. B., and Singleton, T. (2019). Contributions of executive function and cognitive intrinsic motivation to university students’ reading comprehension. Read. Res. Q. 55, 345–369. doi: 10.1002/rrq.273
Channa, M. A., Abassi, A. M., John, S., and Sahito, J. K. M. (2018). Reading comprehension and metacognitive strategies in first-year engineering university students in Pakistan. Int. J. Engl. Ling. 8, 78–87. doi: 10.5539/ijel.v8n6p78
Cox, S. R., Friesner, D. L., and Khayum, M. (2014). Do Reading skills courses help underprepared readers achieve academic success in college? J. College Reading and Learn. 33, 170–196. doi: 10.1080/10790195.2003.10850147
Del Pino-Yépez, G. M., Saltos-Rodríguez, L. J., and Moreira-Aguayo, P. Y. (2019). Estrategias didácticas para el afianzamiento de la comprensión lectora en estudiantes universitarios. Revista científica Dominio de las Ciencias 5, 171–187. doi: 10.23857/dc.v5i1.1038
Dewi, R. S., Fahrurrozi, Hasanah, U., and Wahyudi, A. (2020). Reading interest and Reading comprehension: a correlational study in Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta. Talent Dev. Excell. 12, 241–250.
Diakidoy, I. N., Mouskounti, T., and Ioannides, C. (2011). Comprehension and learning from refutation and expository texts. Read. Res. Q. 46, 22–38. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.46.1.2
Dinsmore, D. J., and Alexander, P. A. (2015). A multidimensional investigation of deep-level and surface-level processing. J. Exp. Educ. 84, 213–244. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2014.979126
Egger, M., Smith, D., and Altmand, D. G. (2001). Systematic Reviews in Health Care: Meta-Analysis in Context. London: BMJ Publishing Group.
Feng, L. (2011). A short analysis of the text variables affecting reading and testing reading. Stud. Lit. Lang. 2, 44–49.
Figueroa Romero, R. L., Castañeda Sánchez, W., and Tamay Carranza, I. A. (2016). Nivel de comprensión lectora en los estudiantes del primer ciclo de la Universidad San Pedro, filial Caraz, 2016. (Trabajo de investigación, Universidad San Pedro). Repositorio Institucional USP. Available at: http://repositorio.usanpedro.edu.pe/bitstream/handle/USANPEDRO/305/PI1640418.pdf?sequence=1andisAllowed=y (Accessed February 15, 2021).
Guevara Benítez, Y., Guerra García, J., Delgado Sánchez, U., and Flores Rubí, C. (2014). Evaluación de distintos niveles de comprensión lectora en estudiantes mexicanos de Psicología. Acta Colombiana de Psicología 17, 113–121. doi: 10.14718/ACP.2014.17.2.12
Guo, D., Zhang, S., Wright, K. L., and McTigue, E. M. (2020). Do you get the picture? A meta-analysis of the effect of graphics on reading comprehension. AERA Open 6, 1–20. doi: 10.1177/2332858420901696
Higgins, J. P., and Green, S. (2008). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. The Cochrane Collaboration.
Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., and Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 327, 327–557. doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
Hong-Nam, K., and Leavell, A. G. (2011). Reading strategy instruction, metacognitive awareness, and self-perception of striving college developmental readers. J. College Literacy Learn. 37, 3–17.
Kazazoglu, S. (2020). Is printed text the best choice? A mixed-method case study on reading comprehension. J. Lang. Linguistic Stud. 16, 458–473. doi: 10.17263/jlls.712879
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kintsch, W., and van Dijk, T. A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychol. Rev. 85, 363–394. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.85.5.363
Kobayashi, M. (2002). Method effects on reading comprehension test performance: test organization and response format. Lang. Test. 19, 193–220. doi: 10.1191/0265532202lt227oa
Koretz, D. (2002). Limitations in the use of achievement tests as measures of educators’ productivity. J. Hum. Resour. 37, 752–777. doi: 10.2307/3069616
Korotaeva, I. V. (2012). Metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension of education majors. Procedural-Social and Behav. Sci. 69, 1895–1900. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.143
Kucer, S. B. (2016). Accuracy, miscues, and the comprehension of complex literary and scientific texts. Read. Psychol. 37, 1076–1095. doi: 10.1080/02702711.2016.1159632
Livingston, C., Klopper, B., Cox, S., and Uys, C. (2015). The impact of an academic reading program in the bachelor of education (intermediate and senior phase) degree. Read. Writ. 6, 1–11. doi: 10.4102/rw.v6i1.66
Márquez, H., Díaz, C., Muñoz, R., and Fuentes, R. (2016). Evaluación de los niveles de comprensión lectora en estudiantes universitarios pertenecientes a las carreras de Kinesiología y Nutrición y Dietética de la Universidad Andrés Bello, Concepción. Revista de Educación en Ciencias de la Salud 13, 154–160.
Mayer, R. E. (ed.) (2009). “Modality principle,” in Multimedia Learning. United States: Cambridge University Press, 200–2020.
McNamara, D. S., and Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning from texts: effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Process 22, 247–288. doi: 10.1080/01638539609544975
McNamara, D. S., and Magliano, J. (2009). “Toward a comprehensive model of comprehension,” in The psychology of learning and motivation. ed. E. B. Ross (New York: Elsevier), 297–384.
Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., et al. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev. 4:1. doi: 10.1186/2046-4053-4-1
Ntereke, B. B., and Ramoroka, B. T. (2017). Reading competency of first-year undergraduate students at the University of Botswana: a case study. Read. Writ. 8:a123. doi: 10.4102/rw.v8i1.123
Oakhill, J. (1982). Constructive processes in skilled and less skilled comprehenders’ memory for sentences. Br. J. Psychol. 73, 13–20. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1982.tb01785.x
Parr, C., and Woloshyn, V. (2013). Reading comprehension strategy instruction in a first-year course: an instructor’s self-study. Can. J. Scholarship Teach. Learn. 4:3. doi: 10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2013.2.3
Perfetti, C. A., Beck, I., Bell, L. C., and Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: a longitudinal study of first-grade children. Merrill-Palmer Q. 33, 283–319.
Pike, G. R. (1996). Limitations of using students’ self-reports of academic development as proxies for traditional achievement measures. Res. High. Educ. 37, 89–114. doi: 10.1007/BF01680043
Pyle, N., Vasquez, A. C., Lignugaris, B., Gillam, S. L., Reutzel, D. R., Olszewski, A., et al. (2017). Effects of expository text structure interventions on comprehension: a meta-analysis. Read. Res. Q. 52, 469–501. doi: 10.1002/rrq.179
Rahmani, M. (2011). Effects of note-taking training on reading comprehension and recall. Reading Matrix: An Int. Online J. 11, 116–126.
Reznitskaya, A., Anderson, R., and Kuo, L. J. (2007). Teaching and learning argumentation. Elem. Sch. J. 107, 449–472. doi: 10.1086/518623
Sáez Sánchez, B. K. (2018). La comprensión lectora en jóvenes universitarios de una escuela formadora de docentes. Revista Electrónica Científica de Investigación Educativa 4, 609–618.
Sanabria Mantilla, T. R. (2018). Relación entre comprensión lectora y rendimiento académico en estudiantes de primer año de Psicología de la Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana. (Trabajo de grado, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana). Repositorio Institucional UPB. Available at: https://repository.upb.edu.co/bitstream/handle/20.500.11912/5443/digital_36863.pdf?sequence=1andisAllowed=y (Accessed February 15, 2021).
Saracaloglu, A. S., and Karasakaloglu, N. (2011). An investigation of prospective teachers’ reading comprehension levels and study and learning strategies related to some variables. Egit. ve Bilim 36, 98–115.
Smagorinsky, P. (2001). If meaning is constructed, what is it made from? Toward a cultural theory of reading. Rev. Educ. Res. 71, 133–169. doi: 10.3102/00346543071001133
Spencer, C. (2006). Research on learners’ preferences for reading from a printed text or a computer screen. J. Dist. Educ. 21, 33–50.
Trakhman, L. M. S., Alexander, P., and Berkowitz, L. E. (2019). Effects of processing time on comprehension and calibration in print and digital mediums. J. Exp. Educ. 87, 101–115. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2017.1411877
Tuncer, M., and Bhadir, F. (2014). Effect of screen reading and reading from printed out material on student success and permanency in introduction to computer lesson. Turk. Online J. Educ. Technol. 13, 41–49.
Ulum, O. G. (2016). A descriptive content analysis of the extent of Bloom’s taxonomy in the reading comprehension questions of the course book Q: skills for success 4 reading and writing. Qual. Rep. 21, 1674–1683.
UNESCO (2009). “Conferencia mundial sobre la Educación Superior – 2009.” La nueva dinámica de la educación superior y la investigación para el cambio social y el desarrollo; July 5-8, 2009; Paris.
van den Broek, P., and Espin, C. A. (2012). Connecting cognitive theory and assessment: measuring individual differences in reading comprehension. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 43, 315–325. doi: 10.1080/02796015.2012.12087512
van den Broek, P., Mouw, J. M., and Kraal, A. (2016). “Individual differences in reading comprehension,” in Handbook of Individual Differences in Reading: Reader, Text, and Context. ed. E. P. Afflerbach (New York: Routledge), 138–150.
Wolfe, M. B. W., and Woodwyk, J. M. (2010). Processing and memory of information presented in narrative or expository texts. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 80, 341–362. doi: 10.1348/000709910X485700
Xu, Y., Wong, R., He, S., Veldre, A., and Andrews, S. (2020). Is it smart to read on your phone? The impact of reading format and culture on the continued influence of misinformation. Mem. Cogn. 48, 1112–1127. doi: 10.3758/s13421-020-01046-0
Yáñez Botello, C. R. (2013). Caracterización de los procesos cognoscitivos y competencias involucrados en los niveles de comprensión lectora en Estudiantes Universitarios. Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos de Psicología 13, 75–90. doi: 10.18270/chps.v13i2.1350
Yussof, Y. M., Jamian, A. R., Hamzah, Z. A. Z., and Roslan, A. (2013). Students’ reading comprehension performance with emotional. Int. J. Edu. Literacy Stud. 1, 82–88. doi: 10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.1n.1p.82
Zheng, Y., Cheng, L., and Klinger, D. A. (2007). Do test format in reading comprehension affect second-language students’ test performance differently? TESL Can. J. 25, 65–78. doi: 10.18806/tesl.v25i1.108
Keywords: reading comprehension, higher education, university students, systematic review, meta-analysis
Citation: de-la-Peña C and Luque-Rojas MJ (2021) Levels of Reading Comprehension in Higher Education: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychol . 12:712901. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712901
Received: 21 May 2021; Accepted: 07 July 2021; Published: 04 August 2021.
Reviewed by:
Copyright © 2021 de-la-Peña and Luque-Rojas. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Cristina de-la-Peña, [email protected]
This article is part of the Research Topic
Neuroscience, Learning and Educational Psychology
Literature review:Reading Comprehension
In this information–driven age, preparing students to read a variety of texts with complete understanding should likely be one of our educational system’s highest priorities. Understanding is more than just the ability to produce information on demand (knowledge) or the ability to perform learned routines (skills). “ Understanding is the ability to think and act flexibly with what one knows.” (Active Learning Practice for Schools, n. d.) A review of the literature in the area of reading comprehension of elementary-age students shows two principle areas of focus. There is a body of literature that examines the development of proficient vs. struggling comprehenders and another body of literature that compares methodologies for teaching reading comprehension . How can what we know about the development of readers inform reading comprehension instruction? Reading instruction typically starts in kindergarten with the alphabetic principle, simple word blending, and sight word recognition. Texts read by early readers usually include very little to comprehend. As children develop reading ability, they are able read more complex texts requiring greater comprehension skills. Separate and explicit instruction in reading comprehension is crucial because the ability to comprehend develops in its own right, independent of word recognition. The ability to read words and sentences is clearly important, but as readers develop, these skills are less and less closely correlated with comprehension abilities. (Aarnoutse & van Leeuwe, 2000) While no one would argue that word blending and sight word reading skills be omitted from early reading instruction, vocabulary and listening comprehension may be at least as important in achieving the even... ... middle of paper ... ...aloud in identification and teaching of reading comprehension strategies―[Electronic version]. Cognition and Instruction, 2 (2), 131-156. McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., & Blake, R. K. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension instruction: A comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches ―[Electronic version]. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(3), 218–253. Nation, Kate, Cocksey, Joanne, Taylor, Jo S.H., & Bishop, Dorothy V. M. A (2010) longitudinal investigation of early reading nd language skills in children with poor reading comprehension. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51:9 (2010), 1031–1039. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02254.x Rapp, David N. (2007). Higher-order comprehension processes in struggling readers: A perspective for research and intervention ―[Electronic version]. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 289-312.
In this essay, the author
- Argues that preparing students to read a variety of texts with complete understanding should be one of our educational system's highest priorities.
- Explains that reading instruction starts with alphabetic principle, simple word blending, and sight word recognition. as children develop reading ability, they are able to read complex texts requiring greater comprehension skills.
- Explains that reading comprehension instruction at a knowledge level is daunting at best and not something that can be left to guess work. mc keown, beck and blake compared basal reading questions to strategy teaching and meaning-centered teaching.
- Explains the need for instruction in reading comprehension, including oral comprehension instruction from the beginning, as decoding skills develop. comprehension instruction should include both "think-alouds" by the teacher to model the comprehension process and critical questions and discussion.
- Cites aarnoutse, cor & van leeuwe, jan. (2000). development of poor and betterreaders during the elementary school.
- Compares instruction for strategies and content approaches, citing mckeown, beck, i. l., and blake.
- Explains longitudinal investigation of early reading nd language skills in children with poor reading comprehension in the journal of child psychology and psychiatry.
- explanatory
- comparative
- Argues that advanced literacy skills are crucial to success in the twenty-first century.
- Explains that e-book readers have been around since the 1970s, with the first being the declaration of independence and project gutenberg.
- States that aaron, p. (2005). reading interventions and strategies. in s. lee's encyclopedia of school psychology. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc.
- Explains how e-readers have changed the way people read, and how they affect their reading comprehension.
- Cites l. j. fundukian's gale encyclopedia of e-commerce.
- Explains that reading comprehension is a skill that has to be learned by most of the population, including adults that have been reading for many years.
- Explains that dyslexia changes the word to read backwards in the reader’s brain, but it covers a wide range of visual learning disorders.
- Explains that dyslexics have poor reading and spelling abilities, switching the directions of letters in words and problems building short-term memory.
- Explains that visual learning for the dyslexic is a much harder concept than the audio learning when it comes to memory building.
- Explains that there are three strategies to learning a new word: resonate, reinforce, and rehearse.
- Explains that a student or adult can want to improve their vocabulary for many different reasons.
- Analyzes how memory is built as a child and carries through our life's as we mature. stronger memory connections are made through audio and physical connections, and words become memories through life experiences and events.
- Explains that phonics is the ability to hear and manipulate phonemes, which are the smallest part of a spoken language. building the connection between letters and the discrete sounds that they make is essential to building reading ability.
- Explains that learning phonics is about understanding the relationship between letter combinations and the spoken language. systematic relationships are more easily taught and understood.
- Explains that fluency is a person's ability to read text with expression accurately, smoothly, and quickly. the relationship with reading comprehension is better assessed through silent reading.
- Explains that literacy, as we know it today, is from the fifteenth century. post world war ii many agencies across the world began programs focused on functional literacy.
- Explains that reading comprehension is a skill that has to be learned by most, and how dyslexia can cause problems with reading.
- Explains that dyslexia is a process that can help build reading and spelling skills, such as using previously learned objects to associate words to.
- Explains the importance of critical reading skills, such as previewing text, activating prior knowledge, and interpreting graphs.
- Explains that they hated reading, and realized they had a reading comprehension deficit. paraphrasing and story maps are two significant interventions teachers can use to help students.
- Explains that paraphrasing is an effective intervention for students with reading comprehension deficits.
- Explains that story mapping is an effective intervention strategy for students with a comprehension deficit. it provides practical and hands-on organization of story content.
- Explains that story mapping and paraphrasing are similar interventions that should be used in all classrooms regardless of age. both allow students to put the story or text in their own words, making it easier to recall certain events and characters.
- Explains how they implement paraphrasing and story-mapping activities in their health classes by giving their elementary students a structured story map with large text and pictures.
- Explains how they assess efficacy of the intervention strategy by giving reading comprehension quizzes that test for the main ideas of a passage in their health teaching classes. both story mapping and paraphrasing can be homework assignments.
- Concludes that story mapping and paraphrasing are efficient intervention strategies that can easily be integrated in the classroom.
- Explains that reading nightmares exist at national and state levels, and within the field of reading education and with teachers across all subject areas.
- Argues that reading nightmares occur nationally. goodland believes that this problem may exist because of the relationship between time spent on reading instruction and the decline in reading abilities.
- Explains that reading instruction, as a field of study, is ripe with nightmares. too often, educators make assumptions about reading and its’ instruction.
- Analyzes how burnett shows that attitudes are changing, but slowly. teachers on the secondary level are still hesitant to get involved in reading instruction.
- Analyzes how bintz categorizes students', teacher's, and textbook-based nightmares as either student based, or someone else’s problem. many teachers feel that other teachers are the teachers of reading, not themselves.
- Opines that colleges and universities must rethink the role of reading education within the teacher curriculum. elementary, junior and senior high schools need to help themselves by intentionally and systematically making reading a high priority.
- Analyzes how their small group fit in well with bintz's statement about reading nightmares. teachers' comments rang true with a lot of things in our discussions.
- Opines that the two biggest obstacles to reading instruction are apathy and funding.
- Opines that the first reading of this article left them feeling like it was incomplete. the article is well written and gives a clear foundation for more study.
- Cites burnett, r.w., hall, fay, myers, and ginsberg.
- Explains humphrey's study of reading in indiana middle, junior and senior high schools.
- Explains that a student's reading capabilities begin development long before entering the school setting and largely start with exposure. as kids are exposed to more and more their noises quickly turn into intentional comprehensible messages and their scribbling becomes legible text.
- Explains that oral language is the creation of messages produced with vocals, as opposed to written text or gestures.
- Explains that many activities that build oral language expose students to letters and the sounds that they make (phonemes). phonological awareness is a prerequisite for learning to read and future success.
- Explains that phonics refers to understanding the relationships between the sounds in words and the way in which they are written in a given language.
- Explains that it's important for teachers to include meanings in their instruction. morphology is the description and understanding of the different parts of a word and their individual meaning.
- Explains that as a person learns more words and recognizes the usage of more morphemes, learning the meaning of new words becomes easier. students naturally build their vocabularies through reading activities, concept maps, and word walls.
- Explains that fluency is one's ability to read accurately, quickly and with prosody. it is measured in accurate words per minute during a reading.
- Explains that comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading. teachers build from simple phrases and sentences in early school, to more complex paragraphs and passages in second and third grade.
- Explains that comprehension requires students to look at individual words, but the meaning of a group of words arranged in particular ways. fluency can only be achieved when students are adequately equipped with grammar and sizable vocabulary.
- Explains snow, powell, sanger, nippold, & schneider, p. (2012). oral language competence, young speakers, and the law.
- Presents solley, j. and tompkins, g., in literacy for the 21st century: a balanced approach.
- Explains that text complexity and oral reading prosody in young readers. reading research quarterly, 45(4), 388-404
- Explains slavin, cheung, groff, and lake, c. effective reading programs for middle and high schools: a best-evidence synthesis.
- Argues that fluency and reading comprehension all play a crucial role in determining how learners acquire skills within the classroom.
- Cites cohen, krustedt, may, leahy, dewitz, jones, and kuhn, m. (2005) and rasinski, t.
- Explains that balanced literacy is a mixture of all components to comprehend and transmit ideas.
- Opines that teachers' practice should work for their students. they should put an effort to find the best way to teach and that fits for every student.
- Opines that there are all components that can improve literacy, including reading, speaking, writing, and listening, but there should be a component only for listening.
- Explains that literacy in a multicultural world is to communicate with others regardless of their cultures. teachers should focus more on phonics to improve students' literacy skills.
- Opines that the most important role of teachers is to teach balanced literacy to future students. teachers' teaching is also important as mental attitude.
- Opines that teachers must be aware of their students' socioeconomic, racial, and cultural background and build their own community.
- Explains that students can improve reading, writing, speaking, and listening by learning balanced literacy from their students.
- Explains that reading is one of the most essential abilities a parent must teach his child. it is among the biggest milestones he can attain in his education.
- Explains that the success of this parent-to-child activity relies solely on the parent's motivation to do it. if a parent comes home tired and cross, he would not have enough patience or energy to read storybooks or play with his kid.
- Opines that a parent should make every reading activity fun and exciting, as the kids are always looking for something new and fascinating.
- Recommends that parents prepare a reading class with their child so that he can learn more words and terms, which will inspire his reading recreation.
- Opines that the parent's deep involvement in the reading activity gives the best results.
- Explains the importance of fluency in at-risk readers and students with learning disabilities.
- Cites marilyn jager adams' book, beginning to read: thinking and learning about print, and brady's book on the basis of teaching reading.
- Cites boegner, dolezal, pressley, raphael, and roehrig's balanced literacy instruction as a reference for their action plan.
- Explains how they implemented the teaching skills from imagine it! materials, which focus on phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency, but are not necessary for the student they are working on.
- Describes how they planned for four-weeks of implementation of materials and fcrr support activities. they incorporated the results of the data they collected and the follow-up of what they thought should be continued with practice or was mastered.
- Opines that review and repetition are key for students with learning disabilities. they believe the steps take and the concepts introduced and reviewed are good and important for the student.
- Opines that they wish they had more time for students like the one in their research plan who need significant exposure to lessons found in imagine it and resources from florida center for reading research.
- Explains why they chose to focus on reading with a first grade student, who scored at the bottom of all first-graders on the fast assessment.
- Explains that phonological awareness (pa) involves a broad range of skills, including identifying and manipulating units of language, breaking words down into syllables and phonemes, and being aware of rhymes, onset and rime units.
- Explains that four phases of reading development have been established (ehri 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999) and that phonological awareness skills are seen throughout the phases.
- Explains that pre-alphabetic phase is before any alphabetic knowledge where connections are made through visual cues on how to pronounce the word and the words meaning.
- Explains that the full alphabetic stage requires phonological awareness as ehri proposed the ability to make connections between graphemes and phonemes to be
- Explains that the ability to break words into recognised units is a key feature of phonological awareness.
- Argues that a child who has passed through each phase should not only be competent and able reader, but should also be expected to be phonologically aware.
- Explains that ehri proposed five ways in which readers are able to read words: sounding out and blending words, pronouncing common spelling patterns, retrieving sight words from memory, analogizing to words already known by sight, and using context to predict words.
- Explains that 5 year old children with phonological awareness and alphabetical knowledge were better at remembering a presented set of words with feedback in compared to those who showed no signs of knowledge.
- Explains that research linking phonological awareness to reading abilities also measures naming speed. individual differences in pa did hold some information in the explanation of reading growth and reading skills over the developmental period of children.
- Explains that research has shown a positive relationship between strong pa and confident/skilled readers whereas poor readers reveal weak pa. phonological awareness could predict future reading ability in children.
- Opines that phonological awareness fails to show a causal affect in reading abilities, so we shouldn't rely wholly on the assement of pa to understand children's reading ability.
- Concludes that although pa plays an important role in early reading, it is not a sufficient condition.
- Argues that phonological awareness assessments should be flexible, altering assessments according to age and development to provide a more accurate understanding of children's reading ability.
- Explains that hogan, catts & little (2005) intended to shed some light on the usefulness of pa assessments and its implication on reading ability.
- Explains that interventions to improve phonological awareness also lead to an improvement in reading ability.
- Concludes that assessing phonological awareness plays a significant role in understanding the child's reading ability especially in early reading development.
- Explains ehri's model of phases of learning to read: a brief critique.
- Opines that there is a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read.
- Explains ehri, l.c., grapheme-phoneme knowledge is essential for learning to read words in english.
- Explains that systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: evidence from the national reading panel's meta-analysis.
- Explains that phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: evidence from the national reading panel’s meta-analysis.
- Describes engen, hoien, catts, and little, t. d. (2005). the relationship between phonological awareness and reading.
- Explains that reading and spelling skills in the first years were predicted from phonemic awareness skills. scandinavian journal of psychology, 21 (1), p159-173.
- Analyzes mcbride-chang's and manis' study of structural invariance in associations of naming speed, phonological awareness, and verbal reasoning in good and poor readers.
- Explains that segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read.
- Explains scarborough's research on phonemic awareness, verbal memory, rapid naming, and iq in second graders with reading disabilities.
- Explains that phonological awareness and rapid automatic naming ability contribute to the growth of word-reading skills in second- to fifth-grade children.
Related Topics
- Reading comprehension
- Comprehension
- Understanding
- RESEARCH PAPERS AND ESSAYS
- ESSAY TOPICS
- PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES
- Joseph Robinette Biden
- Donald Trump
- Barack Obama
- States Ranked by Size & Population
- States Ranked by Date
Literature Review On Reading Comprehension
Rhetorical reading.
In the article by Hass and Flower they discuss how important rhetorical reading is in the way we construct meaning. I agree with them I believe it is important to have a better understanding of what you are reading. While I am someone who is guilty of just getting through a reading to paraphrase I do sometimes struggle with reading between the lines. Something Hass and Flower mentioned that I feel is important in this article is how reading is connected with the way we write. Hass and Flower go on to say that experienced readers understand both reading and writing are context-rich, situational, constructive acts and many students see reading and writing as information exchange.(Pg426)Therefore I think something that should be looked at would be how reading is connected with the way we write which
Analysis Of Reading And Thought By Dwight Macdonald
In Dwight MacDonald’s article, “Reading and Thought” he criticizes journalists on their lack of benefit and weakness in their pieces. MacDonald’s argument clashes with Henry Luce’s ideology of “functional curiosity”, the belief of having the “kind of searching, hungry interest in what is happening everywhere”. MacDonald wants to strengthen the practice of reading instead actually giving valuable information.
Literacy Skills In Steinbeck's Of Mice And
Before children learn to read and write, they must first acquire the ability to speak, listen, watch and understand. “Reading with children from an early age helps them develop a solid foundation for literacy.” Jeanne Chall, leading teacher, writer and researcher viewed the importance of the ‘direct, systematic instruction in reading’ Jeanne Chall’s book, Stages of Literacy Development, investigates the stages of children’s reading skills development and provides methods, for example phonics, in order to effectively encourage the process. The students must master one stage before they can move on to the next. The stages, in brief are: Stage 0 (pre-reading), between the ages of 6 months, or earlier, to 6 years; Stage 1 (initial reading or decoding), between the ages of 6-7 years; Stage 2 (confirmation and fluency), between the ages of 7 and 8; Stage 3 (reading for learning the new), between the ages of 9 and 13; Stage 4 (synthesis of information and applying multiple perspectives and viewpoints), ages between 14 and 18 years; finally, Stage 5 (a worldview, critical literacy in work and society), from 18 years old and onwards . At each stage, Chall states what may be happening to the child in terms of literacy and how parents and teachers can
Jonathan Gottschall And Superman And Me
Reading is something that we do every day and all day, no matter what form of reading it may be, perhaps, reading a text, skimming over a tweet, reading a billboard, or even reading a long lengthy passage that was instructed by your professor. When it comes to reading many advantages can be taken away from just the shortest passages. A person who reads more is more likely to be up to date with the latest news, show empathic growth and pro- social behavior. People with little reading experience are less likely to be equipped for the general population, resulting in high school dropouts, unemployment, and a declining social life. The readings Is Fiction Making Us Stupid by Jonathan Gottschall, and Superman and Me by Sherman Alexie are outstanding,
Strengths And Weaknesses Of Reading Assessment
(Refer to the 5 areas of reading provided earlier in the lesson and provide specific descriptions using the assessment data.)
What Is Gerald Graff's Argument Of Intellectualspeak
Gerald Graff began his career as a teacher before becoming an author focused on critical theory. “Disliking Books at an Early Age” is one of his publications that focuses on the teaching of critical theory. Graff’s argument is that students should be introduced to theory early in academics because a pure reading experience is impossible. Every person brings their own experiences and questions to a text that influences it. Therefore, literary theory gives them a scholarly way to shape their readings and develop the level of “intellectualspeak” that colleges seem to require, which teaches them the skills needed to discuss literature and add to the scholarly conversation. While Graff makes a valid point about the instruction and importance of
How To Read Literature Like A Professor Summary
Thomas Foster, a professor at the University of Michigan, taught literature and writing. He was born in West Cornfield, Ohio, and living in such a small town caused him to become very associated with books. In 2003, Foster published a book, How to Read Literature like a Professor, written in second person. The book is written as a guide for readers to know the parts of nonfiction books. It teaches young readers how to include important elements into their stories. The chapters cause readers to connect to books and movies that they have read and seen before. The novel, Wonder, by R.J. Palacio has many obvious connections to the book, How to Read Literature Like a Professor. When reading Wonder, readers can identify a questor, the importance
How To Read Literature Like A Professor
Thomas C. Foster uses the twenty-fourth chapter of How to Read Literature Like a Professor as a place to investigate how authors employ illnesses to give meaning to their stories. But not all illnesses are physical, and Courtney Cole’s novel, Nocte, displays how the human body reacts to extreme trauma in ways of self-preservation. After surviving a car crash in which her mother and brother died in, Calla Price’s body shut itself down into a coma and rejected all notions that pointed to reality. Instead, her brain blocked out anything that could make reality seem real, and she woke up from her coma believing that her brother and mother were still alive. Her illness may not have been as literal as heart disease or cancer but her inability to
Review Of How To Read Literature Like A Professor
The book, How To Read Literature Like a Professor by Thomas C. Foster, was written to help people of all ages better their understanding of works of literature by teaching them to relate multiple works of literature together, as well as being able to find common traits in literature ex. A meal isn’t normally just a meal. How To Read Literature Like a Professor is written in second person perspective, which means that the author is including you in the story, an example of this would be a dialogue between the author and yourself, or it says “you” a lot, ex. “You wake up and…”. After reading this novel the author, Thomas C. Foster, wants you to be a better overall reader and be able to identify certain parts in a book that are commonly found.
Summary Of How To Read Literature Like A Professor
Chapter seventeen of How to Read Literature Like a Professor focuses on how authors employ sex in their writing as a way to encode other things. For example, in the 2015 romantic comedy film, Trainwreck, Amy Schumer plays a young woman with a liking for booze, sex and drugs. The film begins with a scene where Gordon Townsend is explaining his reasoning for why monogamy isn’t realistic to his two little girls. The film then flashes twenty three years forward, directly into a sex scene featuring Amy and a one night stand. The scene is fairly short and it is obvious that the attraction on Amy’s side is limited, for she pretends to fall asleep soon after walking in the door. After the man falls asleep, one can hear Amy speaking. She explains her
Oral Language: The Six Components Of Reading
While traveling towards the path of seeping knowledge and analyzing critical ideals, we’ve become absent minded towards the components that gave us the ability to read. Since reading is always a part of our everyday routine, we have lost the idea that when it comes to learning how to read, we must start from the basics. From reading a case study, to reading a letter from a loved one, comprehension, phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and oral language are the six essential components of reading.
Summary Of The 7 Habits Of Highly Effective Readers
In “The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Readers” by Kavitha Rao, she express her opinion on the topic that the current generation is not reading for fun. She mentions several experience she had with other people, that don 't see the benefit in reading for fun. She says that since people aren 't reading more leisure anymore they 're becoming less creative, inarticulate, have poor communication skills and low confidence, which is caused by parents forcing their kids to read, and the education system need to have students memorize textbooks and nothing else. After reading this article I find myself disagreeing with Rao on several points she made, I don’t believe the modern attitude towards reading is causing people to be self absorbed and unimaginative, she also claims that book clubs don 't encourage reading for fun, parents are forcing their children to read boring books which turned them away from reading and that the educational system is to blame for college students for being inarticulate.
Lens On Reading
Lenses on Reading:An Introduction to Theories and Modelsis an excellent read. The authors bring a lot of useful information to not only the field of education but to the classroom. Throughout the book, the authors provided vignettes to show theoretical models in action which gives the reader a visual of how the theoretical model can be applied. The layout of the chapters was in chronological order which is was also helpful. The layout shows the reader the development of literacy theories from Early Theories and Models Applicable to Reading through the 21st century. It was interesting to see some of the theories overlapping each other and some of the theories were developed upon by other scholars. For example, the Schema Theory was developed further by Louise Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory.
Advantages Of Intensive Reading
The reader acquires a variety of vocabulary thus increases the quality of writing and reading for low level readers. Secondly, it makes the reader be able to interpret text by using word attack skills and text attack skills which improves the skill of reading. Lastly, it makes the reader to understand or comprehend difficult text in a book or reading material. Drawbacks or limitations of intensive reading are firstly, most time is spent on reading a small amount of text which is time consuming. Secondly, Reading new material mostly containing complex vocabulary and grammar is a long and slow process in order for the reader to understand the text in the reading material. Lastly, there is little practice of reading a larger detail of text since the reader will be focusing in a small amount of text which makes the reader to be exhausted on a small amount of text while there is a lot to cover in a reading
More about Literature Review On Reading Comprehension
Related topics.
- Whole language
- The Passage
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
- Special school
- Special needs
Home > CAFSA > cltmt > Vol. 3 > Iss. 2 (2020)
Chinese Language Teaching Methodology and Technology
English title.
L2 Chinese Reading Comprehension among Beginning-Level, K-12 Learners: A Literature Review
Diane E. Neubauer , University of Iowa Follow
Author Name in Chinese
Author affiliation.
University of Iowa
English Abstract
This review focuses on beginning-level, K-12, L1 English learners, and considers their reading comprehension of texts written in Chinese characters and literacy development. Instructional approaches, materials design, and teaching and learning strategies related to reading texts in Chinese characters in these settings are reviewed. This review includes both empirical studies and think pieces that appeal to prior empirical work in L2 Chinese reading to understand what Chinese as a Second Language scholars research, discuss, and advocate about reading comprehension for L2 learners mainly at beginning levels of K-12 education. This literature review therefore includes a variety of source materials: empirical research, research-informed advocacy and think pieces, and action research studies by Chinese language instructors. The article concludes with observations about the state of research and current recommendations in Chinese as a second language reading comprehension.
Manuscript Language
Recommended citation.
Neubauer, Diane E. (2020) "L2 Chinese Reading Comprehension among Beginning-Level, K-12 Learners: A Literature Review," Chinese Language Teaching Methodology and Technology : Vol. 3: Iss. 2, Article 4. Available at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cltmt/vol3/iss2/4
Since January 25, 2021
Included in
Chinese Studies Commons
- Journal Home
- About This Journal
- Aims & Scope
- Editorial Board
- Submission Guidelines & Policies
- Submit Article
- Most Popular Papers
- Receive Email Notices or RSS
Advanced Search
ISSN: 2572-1739
Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement
Privacy Copyright
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Review of Related Literature to Reading Comprehension. “In my classroom, above the chalkboard are giant purple letters that say, 'Reading Is Thinking',”
Based on the finding of the previous research, the researcher can conclude that reading comprehension is a process understanding the meaning of the text by
Jones and Brown (2011) detailed a study with the purpose of examining reading engagement and comprehension of children as they read e-books. The participants
Ha4 There is a difference in post-test comprehension level of students in experimental and control group. 2. Literature Review. 2.1 Reading and
The level of reading comprehension refers to the type of mental representation that is made of the written text. The reader builds a mental model in which he
Readers must intentionally and purposefully work to create meaning from what they read (David Chard, 2008). In short, reading comprehension is the ability to
literature review consists about reading, reading comprehension, genres of the text, RAP strategy, and previous study. A. Reading. 1. The Nature of Reading.
In this essay, the author. Explains that reading comprehension is a skill that has to be learned by most of the population, including adults that have been
Lenz also stated that reading comprehension can be affected from the quality of reading materials given to pupils (2016). What he meant here was that in some
This review focuses on beginning-level, K-12, L1 English learners, and considers their reading comprehension of texts written in Chinese characters and