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How to Research Your Symptoms Online
People use the Internet to research a myriad of things from what they should buy to why they have pain. These guidelines will help you learn how to research your symptoms online if you have concerns.
Use a Medical MD Symptom Checker
As soon as you enter the phrase, “how to research health symptoms,” into any search engine, you’ll receive results for at least one or more reputable medical MD symptom checkers. These symptoms checkers ask your age, gender, primary symptoms, if you’re pregnant, the severity of your symptoms, your current medications and past or current conditions. Once you click submit, a list of conditions that match your symptoms will appear. You’ll have the option to edit your symptoms or start over if you wish.
Check Reputable Websites
If you can’t find what you’re looking for using a free medical symptom checker, there are websites with articles or blog posts that list symptoms. Make sure you’re looking at reputable websites that end with .org or .edu because these sites tend to contain scholarly or medical information that can be trusted. The Internet is full of information that’s published and not verified. Therefore, it’s essential that you’re looking up symptoms on a website that presents information that’s been fact-checked.
Go to a Doctor’s Website
Under some circumstances, you’ll find an online symptom checker on a physician’s website. If you can’t find a MD symptom checker, you’ll find a plethora of resources on these websites. Doctors work diligently toward providing information for their patients in the way of medical library research materials, informational articles, blog posts and podcasts. Therefore, if you can find a symptom checker, you should be able to find information about the symptoms you’re experiencing.
Visit Forums
Sometimes it helps to hear what others are experiencing when you’re undergoing symptoms that don’t match up with the search results you’ve found. Therefore, it’s time to check out user forums. These discussion areas contain experiences from users who go into detail about the symptoms they’re having, what’s happening throughout their experience and if they’re having successful or unsuccessful treatment. Be cautious, though, as these forums will not replace medical advice and may lead to more worry than help.
Check Out Question-and-Answer Websites
Much like a discussion forum, these websites are where users post specific questions to other users regarding issues they’re experiencing. Under many circumstances, these questions pertain to symptoms they’re experiencing and where they can find resources. Other users will help them find pertinent information regarding their specific symptoms when they feel they’ve exhausted every other avenue.
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- 1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK byby Chandra P. Rijal, PhDChandra P. Rijal, PhD Managing DirectorManaging Director Edify International Pvt. Ltd.Edify International Pvt. Ltd. 1 Doc5 [email protected]
- 2. Research MeansResearch Means Systematic and objective investigation of aSystematic and objective investigation of a subjectsubject or aor a problemproblem in order to discoverin order to discover relevant information.relevant information. 2 [email protected]
- 3. Investigation on a subject refers to … Establishing a conceptual, or theoretical understanding about something to be promoted as part of disciplinary studies. For example, development of a theory in public health. Investigation on a problem refers to … Assessing, diagnosing, exploring, or evaluating various facets pertaining to a management problem. For example, what percentage of first time Bhatbhateni Superstores visitors come back again to this place for shopping? 3 [email protected]
- 4. Discovery of a relevant information refers to … Establishing theoretical grounds for a disciplinary study, or Deducting problem solution under a defined situation. 4 [email protected]
- 5. So, what does it mean by research in you opinion? 1. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5 [email protected]
- 6. Why is a research conducted? 1. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6 [email protected]
- 7. Types of Research Basically, there are only two types of research a.Fundamental Research b.Applied Research 7 [email protected]
- 8. Fundamental Research Known as basic or pure research; seeks to expand the boundaries of knowledge in the given area. For example, development of research methods, propagation of new theories, conduction of academic research studies. 8 [email protected]
- 9. Applied Research Known as a decisional research Attempts to use existing knowledge for resolving the current problem. For example? What are the customer needs, expectations, and problems associated to our offerings? How did the general public like the prevailing governance system? [email protected] 9
- 10. Lets repeat it again… ¤ A research may be considered as a systematic and objective investigation that involves systematic design, collection, preparation, interpretation and reporting of information needed to solve specific problems or promote a domain of learning. [email protected] 10
- 11. 1.1. AssessmentAssessment 2.2. ExplorationExploration 3.3. EvaluationEvaluation 4.4. ExaminationExamination 5.5. ComparisonComparison 6.6. EstimationEstimation 7.7. PropagationPropagation [email protected] 11
- 12. Lev els Nature of objective Objective description 1. AssessmentAssessment To observe the situation and infer results 2. ExplorationExploration To uncover the reality facing a problem 3. EvaluationEvaluation To measure the level of existence 4. ExaminationExamination To test the existence 5. ComparisonComparison To compare and contrast between given variables 6. EstimationEstimation To project probable level of happening 7. PropagationPropagation To declare a concept, theory, system or model [email protected] 12
- 13. [email protected] 13 Step 1 Define the problem and research objectives Step 2 Design the research with plan for collecting data Step 3 Implement the research - collect, prepare and analyze the data Step 4 Produce results, interpret , deduce inferences and report the findings
- 14. Specification of methods and procedures for obtaining the information needed A plan or organizing framework for conducting the study and collecting data Serves as the blueprint of the detailed procedures and rationales of a research project An essential part of research methodology [email protected] 14
- 15. What is the study all about? Why is the study being carried out? Where will the study be carried out? What tools and techniques of data collection will be used? How will the issue of validity and reliability be addressed? What type of data are required? How much time will the study require? What will be the sample design? What techniques of data collection will be used ? How will the data be analyzed and interpreted? [email protected] 15
- 16. Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide the research study Supports in better planning & execution of the research methodology Useful in the estimation of probable research errors and handling strategies Maintains necessary control over the contents of the study Makes the study more systematic, and effective [email protected] 16
- 17. Determine the exploratory, descriptive, or causal phases of the research Determine the information needed Specify the measurement and scaling procedures Construct and pretest appropriate forms of data collection Specify sampling process and sample size Develop a plan of data analysis and presentation Develop a monitoring and control mechanism to facilitate the overall research function [email protected] 17
- 18. On the basis of the study techniques undertaken, research designs can primarily be categorized into TWO forms: 1. Exploratory Research Designs1. Exploratory Research Designs 2. Conclusive Research Designs2. Conclusive Research Designs a. Descriptive Research Designs b. Causal Research Designs [email protected] 18
- 19. [email protected] 19 Observational Research Gathering data by observing people, actions and situations (Exploratory) Experimental Research Using groups of people to determine cause and effect relationships (Causal) Survey Research Asking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors (Descriptive) Three Research Approaches
- 20. [email protected] 20 Exploratory Research Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Descriptive Research Causal Research Causal Research Test hypotheses about cause and effect relationships X causes Y Test hypotheses about cause and effect relationships X causes Y Gathers preliminary information to define the problem and suggest hypotheses Literature search, expert interviews, focus groups, case studies, company audits, qualitative research Gathers preliminary information to define the problem and suggest hypotheses Literature search, expert interviews, focus groups, case studies, company audits, qualitative research Describes things as the market potential of a product, consumer demographics and attitudes Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations, panels, simulations Describes things as the market potential of a product, consumer demographics and attitudes Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations, panels, simulations
- 21. Step 1: Define the Research Problem Step 2: Estimate the value of the information to be provided by the research Step 3: Select the Data Collection Method Step 4: Select the Measurement Techniques Step 5: Select the Sample Step 6: Select the Analytical Approach Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the Research Step 8: Specify the Time and Financial Cost Step 9: Prepare the Research Proposal [email protected] 21
- 22. 1. Problem Definition 2. Study Approach and Designs 3. Population and Sampling Strategies 4. Sources of Data 5. Instrumentation 6. Mechanism for Research Administration 7. Mechanism for Data Processing and Analysis 8. Confirmation of the Expertise Involved 9. Timeframe of the Study 10. Cost of the Study [email protected] 22
- 23. MeaningMeaning Known as a property of proposition beingKnown as a property of proposition being studiedstudied Also known as the constructs of aAlso known as the constructs of a propositionproposition A symbol to which we assign numerals orA symbol to which we assign numerals or valuesvalues Numerical value assigned to a variable isNumerical value assigned to a variable is based on its propertiesbased on its properties [email protected] 23
- 24. Three General Examples of VariablesThree General Examples of Variables 1. Dichotomous Variables1. Dichotomous Variables These variables are so called because they haveThese variables are so called because they have TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of aTWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a property.property. For exampleFor example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist,: pass or fail, exists or does not exist, employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no. The dichotomous variables can be assigned with aThe dichotomous variables can be assigned with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose. [email protected] 24
- 25. 2. Discrete Variables2. Discrete Variables These are categorical variables.These are categorical variables. For example, the demographic variables race orFor example, the demographic variables race or religion are the examples of discrete variables.religion are the examples of discrete variables. Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain canReligion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.respectively. The numerical values assigned to these variablesThe numerical values assigned to these variables will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7. [email protected] 25
- 26. 3. Continuous Variables3. Continuous Variables These variables take on values with a given rangeThese variables take on values with a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.or, in some cases, an infinite set. For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100, age may be 2.5 years, present income of aage may be 2.5 years, present income of a person could be Rs. 15000, you may discloseperson could be Rs. 15000, you may disclose your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000. [email protected] 26
- 27. [email protected] 27 Sample vs. Population Population = collection of ALL possible observations Sample = subset of a population Random Sample representative of a population all observations have equal chance of being selected
- 28. Cost Time Inaccessibility of the population Accuracy Destruction of the observations [email protected] 28
- 29. [email protected] 29 Step 1: Define the Population of Interest Step 1: Define the Population of Interest Step 2: Choose Data Collection Method Step 2: Choose Data Collection Method Step 3: Choose Sampling Frames Step 3: Choose Sampling Frames Step 4: Select a Sampling Method Step 4: Select a Sampling Method Step 5: Determine Sample Size Step 5: Determine Sample Size Step 6: Develop and Specify Operational Plan Step 6: Develop and Specify Operational Plan Step 7: Execute Operational Sampling Plan Step 7: Execute Operational Sampling Plan
- 30. Probability vs. Nonprobability Probability members in the population have a known chance (probability) of being selected into the sample Nonprobability the probability of selecting members from the population is not known [email protected] 30
- 31. 31 Define Population Determine Sampling Frame Determine Sampling Procedure Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling Non-Probability Sampling Convenience Judgmental Quota Snow-ball Determine Appropriate Sample Size Execute Sampling Design [email protected]
- 32. [email protected] 32 Sampling Methods Sampling Methods Probability Samples Probability Samples Simple Random Simple Random ClusterCluster SystematicSystematic StratifiedStratified Non- probability Non- probability QuotaQuotaJudgmentJudgment ConvenienceConvenience SnowballSnowball
- 33. Meaning Data are the units, or, numbers, or facts that are generated through observation. Data can be qualitative as well as quantitative. Considered as the backbone for the evidence of every findings and decision alternatives in the research. [email protected] 33
- 34. Data Objectives Data objectives are derived from the research objectives and comprise of what we have observed to be lacking in the example. Their determination mainly rests on the researcher, to translate what the decision maker wants into a specific description of the needed data. Doc5 [email protected] 34
- 35. General Qualities Required 1.The measurement should be relevant and adequate to the problem faced to provide key guidance in decision making. 2.The data must be accurate in both -- i. Validity: Measure what they are supposed to, and ii. Reliability: On repeating the same method, should give the same results. 3. Data should be obtained quickly enough at an affordable cost. [email protected] 35
- 36. Nature of Data 1. Facts: Include the measurements of anything that actually exists or has existed. Facts, generally describe tangible things, they also can be intangibles. They generally originate as the demographic, sociological, psychographic, or behavioral types. [email protected] 36
- 37. 2. Knowledge: That is what people know. The information true or false, exists or does not exist, etc. Example Consumers awareness about a product or a brand. 3. Opinion How people perceive something. What they believe about attitudes. The mental sets or predisposition to act in some manner. Example Consumer perception regarding good or bad. [email protected] 37
- 38. 4. Intentions: The acts that people have in mind to do. The expectations of their behavior Example: Consumer interest upon a certain retailer. 5. Motives: Internal forces that cause people to behave as they do. Motives may be instrumental ideas for identifying the subjects about which the people will speak freely. Example: A certain consumer never liking wine. [email protected] 38
- 39. Functions of Data 1. Causation 2. Pay off Here, ‘X’ is the causation and ‘Y’ is the pay off. 3. Description: Determination of causal variables in the sample. E.g.: How many of them are ‘X’. 4. Identification: Identification of the particular source. e.g.: The name of person who took an interview, or made an observation, name, address, and locations of subjects, etc. [email protected] 39 Y = f(X) ‘X’ Causes ‘Y’
- 40. 1. Primary Vs. Secondary Primary Data That originate from primary sources and are based on observation or investigation or direct questioning. * Observation Method * Interview Method * Questionnaires * Projective Techniques * Content Analysis [email protected] 40
- 41. 1. Primary Vs. Secondary Secondary Data That originate from secondary sources. Data already available, collected and analyzed by someone else. * Publications * Books * Journals * Magazines and Newspapers * Reports * Collateral Materials * PR Messages [email protected] 41
- 42. 2. Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Qualitative Data: Psychological, perceptual, or conceptual data that is not counted in numbers, rather coded as ‘good or bad’, ‘interesting or boring’ etc. Quantitative Data: Number based facts and figures. Frequency of occurrence. 3. Personal Reporting Data based on individual observation and reporting. Can be qualitative as well as quantitative. [email protected] 42 Can be primary/secondary Always primary
- 43. 1. Internal Data developed or gathered, maintained, and preserved by the organization itself. MIS is the best source for internal records. MIS comprises of FOUR major components; Management Research Systems (MRS), Internal Database Systems (IDS), Management Intelligence Systems (MIS), and Analytical Information Systems (AIS). Annual reports, collateral materials, press releases etc. [email protected] 43 Primary
- 44. 2. External * Data generated from the published reports of various bureaus, and public surveys. Example: EDIFY International conducting a salt consumption behavior research study in Nepal, and the same report findings to be used in other related future researches. Use of CBS - Nepal reports for various research purposes. [email protected] 44 Secondary
- 45. 1. Literature Reviews * A secondary method of data collection. * Facts gathered in the basis of reviews of various publications, articles, journals, books, collateral materials, reports, etc. * Useful in providing the evidence to the results of the primary observation. * Mostly used in understanding the theoretical phenomenon. * Very essential in qualitative studies. [email protected] 45
- 46. 2. Census * Census represents the study of universe. * Mostly conducted by the governments in long periodical basis. * Each and every component of the population is the subject of the study. * Most costly approach of data collection. [email protected] 46
- 47. 3. Survey * An alternative to census. * Sample based study; study/observation through population representation. * Mostly used by the researchers. * A primary method of data collection. [email protected] 47
- 48. 4. Focus Group Observation * A approach of group observation. * A source for primary data collection. * Useful in perceptual studies. * The groups may comprise of 6 to 10 people. * The issues are discussed by cross questioning and sharing their views. * Suitable in case of new product launch and testing. [email protected] 48 Can be direct or indirect, structured or unstructured
- 49. 5. Experiments * A primary method of data collection. * Can be field or lab experiment based. * Mostly conducted by using the control groups. * Most useful in new product testing. * May be very costly incase of wrong selection of control groups. * Sometimes conducted by the help of various physical tests; eye movements, pupil movements, skin stimuli etc. [email protected] 49
- 50. 6. Interviews * A popular method of primary data collection. * Data collected in the basis of personal interaction with the respondents. * Can be well-structured or less-structured. * Useful when small size of observation is enough for data collection. * The individuals/subjects are the source of study. [email protected] 50
- 51. Data Reduction and Analysis Data Reduction Process Step I: Establishing field controls Step II: Editing of data Step III: Coding the data Step IV: Transcribing Step V: Creating new variables Step VI: Calculating and summarizing statistics Data Analysis Descriptive analysis Bivariate analysis Multivariate analysis [email protected] 51
- 52. Presentation of a Report I. Prefatory Part Title Page Signatory Page Copy Rights Acknowledgements Executive Summary Table of Contents List of Tables and Graphs List of Abbreviations [email protected] 52
- 53. II. Main Body Introduction Review of Literature Research Methodology Data Reduction, Presentation, and Analysis Summary of Key Findings Recommendations and Conclusions III. Supplementary Part Bibliography or References Annextures Appendixes [email protected] 53
- 54. [email protected] 54 Nature and Content of Ethical Issues Participant Treatment Issues * Purpose shouldn't be to sell merchandise * Anonymity must be protected ---------------------------- Ultraviolet ink Hidden tape recorders One-way mirrors Fake long distance calls Fake research firm Right to safety Right to be informed Right to privacy Right to choice Client Treatment Issues * Methods used and results should be accurately reported ---------------------------- Confidentiality Unqualified researcher Proprietary information Unnecessary research Researcher Treatment Issues * Should not disseminate conclusions that are inconsistent with data * Should not solicit designs and deliver to another for execution ---------------------------- Excessive requests Reneging on promises Availability of funds
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Lecture Notes on Research Methodology
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