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Cogent Business & Management
Open access
E-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review
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- https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2020.1814503
1. Introduction
2. literature review, 3. methodology, 5. discussion, 6. conclusion and future work, additional information, operations, information & technology.
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The developing world has become the primary destination for used electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) exported by the developed world, making e-waste management critical. This paper aims to determine the state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa by critically reviewing the corpus on electronic waste (e-waste) management in the region. Even though many studies were conducted on e-waste management, very few are conducted on developing countries who are significant recipients of used EEE. We applied a systematic literature review (SLR) process on research articles retrieved from Web of Science, EBSCO Host and Sabinet databases. Using the keywords that included e-waste management or recycling or policy in Sub-Saharan Africa or Africa, we searched for articles from these databases. We analysed 25 papers selected from 151,558 papers initially retrieved to answer the research questions. The findings revealed that about 80% of research on e-waste management in the Sub-Saharan Africa region was undertaken in three countries: Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa. The review of the selected articles revealed that lack of policy and limited recycling infrastructure were the main barriers to effective e-waste management. The SLR revealed that most countries in the region practice informal and rudimentary recycling methods. Based on the common barriers identified, our recommendations can provide insight to policymakers, contribute to theory, and offer opportunities for future research.
- e-waste management
- environment
The attainment of most of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) hinges on a digitally connected world (Orisakwe et al., Citation 2019 ; Oteng-Ababio et al., Citation 2020 ; Schroeder et al., Citation 2019 ). As the world transformed into a global village, the knowledge economy emerged with more dependence on electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) (Ssewanyana & Busler, Citation 2007 ). The demand for EEE has risen astronomically due to consumer demand for new products. Kumar and Dixit ( Citation 2018 ) noted that the rapid technological advancement and the quest for more profitability by firms resulted in the faster introduction of newer and cheaper products. In contrast, the lifespan of EEE has shortened, thus resulting in their discarding even before reaching their useful lifespan. Many countries in Africa depend on refurbished computers from developed countries to participate in the knowledge economy. However, failure to manage obsolete and unrepairable EEE results in electronic waste (e-waste), whose increase is detrimental to the environment and human health. E-waste refers to obsolete and abandoned EEE containing toxic substances that are generally disposed of in illegal dumpsites in most developing countries (Nwagwu & Okuneye, Citation 2016 ).
The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa. At present, general research on e-waste management in developing countries is still in its infancy. This review examined 25 articles on e-waste management in the region selected through a rigorous process involving bibliometric and content analysis. We discuss e-waste management issues affecting most African countries such as lack of awareness, policy, infrastructure, the effect on public health and the environment as well as livelihood issues. The paper also highlights that the idea of importing used EEE to bridge the digital divide in the Global South is noble, but ought to be done in the presence of sound policies that can deter illegal dumping and subsistence recycling of e-waste. Existing literature shows that many countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa region do not have policies to manage e-waste. This paper contributes to the literature on e-governance by reviewing existing literature on e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa.
This analysis reveals the status of e-waste and summarises issues that have an influence on policy and practice on e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study denotes the current e-waste management and recycling methods practised in most countries in this region and how they relate to environmental sustainability and human health. The remaining sections of this paper are the literature review, methodology, presentation of the main review findings, discussion, limitations and conclusions, and direction for future research.
The advent of the knowledge economy has put immense pressure on the developing world to embrace digital technologies to join the global village. The rapid modernisation, industrialisation and consumer appetite for better products has exacerbated e-waste management challenges. The lifespan of computers and peripherals reduced from 5–10 years previously and now ranges between 3–4 years as this equipment is built with a focus on replacement instead of repairing (Agamuthu et al., Citation 2015 ). Omobowale ( Citation 2012 ) asserted that poor communities in developing countries only afford second-hand EEE. Additionally, Orisakwe et al. ( Citation 2019 ) noted that second-hand EEE allowed those who were marginalised to have access to information related to markets and prices, promoting sustainable development.
Wang et al. ( Citation 2013 ) postulate that developed countries had enacted policies, infrastructure, and technical skills to manage e-waste. Developed countries embraced the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policy which places the burden of managing e-waste in the hands of the manufacturers of EEE (Fraige et al., Citation 2012 ). The EPR adopted by most developed countries allows consumers to return obsolete EEE to the manufacturers for a fee paid to the consumer (Adanu et al., Citation 2020 ; Cahill et al., Citation 2011 ). In developed countries such as United States, Japan, Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland and others, e-waste collection and recycling is coordinated by producers and municipalities through effective policies (Mmereki et al., Citation 2015 ). China established over 109 formal recycling centres which have collected over 43 million units beyond the country’s recycling needs (Ghosh et al., Citation 2016 ).
Though the Global North has developed policies and set up the infrastructure to recycle e-waste, it remains lucrative to ship it to the Global South, where there are no policies and legislation to govern its management. Worryingly, the recipient countries lack policies, knowledge, and appropriate disposal facilities, thus resulting in the accumulation of e-waste (Nganji & Brayshaw, Citation 2010 ). Orisakwe et al. ( Citation 2019 ) noted that recipient countries had no policies and infrastructure to handle e-waste, therefore posing a danger to the environment and human health. Developing nations face unprecedented strain on the environment and human health as global e-waste output is likely to exceed 53 million metric tonnes by 2021 (Baldé et al., Citation 2017 ). Developing nations’ domestic e-waste was 25.4 million tons, and for the first time, it exceeded that of the developed world’s domestic e-waste that stood at 23.5 million tons (Collins, Citation 2013 ). By 2030, the developing world will dispose of over 700 million obsolete computers, yet few studies on e-waste management were conducted in Africa (Kumar & Dixit, Citation 2018 ; Sthiannopkao & Wong, Citation 2013 ).
The detrimental effect of improper handling of e-waste on the environment and human life made developed countries enact policies that govern e-waste management (Khan et al., Citation 2014 ). In most developing countries, e-waste handlers use rudimentary means of processing e-waste through incinerating or open burning in dumpsites. The most affected and vulnerable groups are; the illegal e-waste workers who use rudimentary means, with no appropriate tools, the general public which reside near informal recycling dumpsites, children and pregnant women (Bakhiyi et al., Citation 2018 ).
There have been reports of illegal transboundary movement of hazardous waste from the Global North disguised as commercial goods to developing countries (Amankwah-Amoah, Citation 2016 ; Hopson & Puckett, Citation 2016 ). About 80% of the e-waste produced by the Global North was exported illegally to developing countries in the Global South (Yu et al., Citation 2017 ). Doyon-Martin ( Citation 2015 ) have reported an increase in intra-African e-waste movement from countries such as South Africa, Nigeria, and Tunisia to other countries with porous borders such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique among others. Although e-waste contains toxic and hazardous metals such as barium and mercury among others, it also contains non-ferrous metals such as copper, aluminium and precious metals such as gold and copper, which if recycled could earn income over 55 billion euros (Baldé et al., Citation 2017 ; Peluola, Citation 2016 ).
Despite the evident e-waste disaster, most developing countries do not have legislation and appropriate infrastructure, so e-waste is handled by illegal recyclers who pollute the environment and threaten public health (Arif & Afroz, Citation 2014 ). Scholars have posited that there is little information on the volume of e-waste in developing countries who often do not have systems to deal with e-waste (Mmereki et al., Citation 2015 ; Orisakwe et al., Citation 2019 ). South Africa, Rwanda, and Uganda are some of the countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa region that have taken many steps in managing e-waste through enacting various policies and laws (Baldé et al., Citation 2017 ). There is a need for more developing countries to enact policies that guide the management of e-waste to prevent environmental degradation and adverse effects on human health (de Oliveira et al., Citation 2012 ; Orisakwe et al., Citation 2019 ). Limited research and a lack of national effort in managing e-waste in most developing countries are the causes for the unavailability on information on e-waste volumes generated in these countries.
Little work has been carried out on e-waste management in developing countries and previous works have not comprehensively considered Africa or the Sub-Saharan Africa in particular. The paper aims to provide an overview of the state of e-waste management in the Sub-Saharan Africa region which has become a significant recipient of second-hand EEE in an attempt to bridge the digital divide and join the information super high way. The SLR will provide a knowledge map that shows research trends in the region. The study proposed two research questions:
i. What is the state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa?
ii. What are the significant challenges regarding e-waste management in the region?
Kitchenham ( Citation 2004 ) proposed the SLR as a critical step in conducting scientific research. This method involves analysing all relevant primary research publications by identifying, mapping, evaluating, aggregating and interpreting based on a particular research question, phenomenon of interest or topic area. Also, SLR is used to identify gaps in particular topics to be filled. The SLR analysis followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Kitchenham et al., Citation 2009 ), which is in line with the aim of SLR, which is to construct a broader view of the research question by summarising the literature with minimum bias (Kitchenham, Citation 2004 ). In response to the research questions, we conducted a systematic literature search in February 2020 on relevant scientific journals. To narrow down the search and acquire relevant content, we considered papers published between January 2008 and January 2020. To broaden the article base and produce a comprehensive search, we used the top bibliographic databases for conducting the search process. Based on the accessibility of articles, we chose the following scientific databases: Web of Science (Taylor and Francis Online, Science Direct, Sage, Springer Link), EBSCO Host and Sabinet African Journals. Due to the nature of the study, we included Sabinet African Journals because they publish articles originating from or about Africa. We utilised keywords used in most e-waste management literature in developing countries, including their synonyms, to find suitable research articles.
Published online:
Table 1. iterative search for article selection.
Figure 1. Article selection process.
In the second stage, we further refined the search string to increase the accuracy of the searches by using the search string (“e-waste” OR “e-waste management”) AND (“Africa” OR “Sub-Saharan Africa”) and this produced better results. We examined all the research article by title yielding to 1, 513 papers. In the next phase, we retained 400 research articles after examining each publication title to make sure that it specifically related to e-waste in Africa or sub-Saharan Africa.
In the fourth phase, we evaluated the selected papers to ensure that they related to e-waste management, awareness, policy, and recycling infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa and this resulted in the further exclusion of 350 papers. We used Rayyan ( https://rayyan.qcri.org ), a free web and mobile app for conducting systematic reviews for screening the articles. Rayyan is used to speed up the initial abstract/title screening of articles, and it allows researchers to collaborate in reviews (Ouzzani et al., Citation 2016 ). We uploaded citation files downloaded from the databases scientific databases. For the study, the authors collaborated and screened the articles individually. We used the three labels “include”, “exclude” and “undecided”. In cases where an article was labelled as undecided, by either author, we discussed the article before labelling it as included or excluded.
The final iterative search stage involved identifying candidate articles. We determined the relevancy of the full article by carefully reading the abstract and the conclusion. We included the identified research articles on the final list based on the degree to which they answered the research questions. Finally, we also examined duplicate titles and leaving 25 most relevant papers. Appendix A shows the list of the papers chosen for the study.
Content analysis was performed to extract emerging themes from the selected papers. Extracted data were then classified to address the research questions. The articles provided information on the country, the focus of the study and how data was analysed. We, therefore, applied content analysis to provide a summary of extracted data in line with assertions by Mayring ( Citation 2000 ) who concluded that data evaluation involves text comprehension and interpretation. The main variables are discussed as emerging themes (Section 4.2 ) show the state of e-waste management in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. We used the emerging themes to identify trends and gaps in e-waste management corpus in the region. The data was then analysed quantitatively and qualitatively to interpret the underlying terms and arguments.
Figure 2. Themes, topics and countries covered in the research articles.
4.1. The state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa
4.1.1. distribution of papers by country.
Figure 3. Selected articles by country.
4.1.2. Distribution of papers by category
From the selected 25 articles, seven articles majored on the impact of e-waste on health and five tackled the impact of e-waste on people’s livelihood. Four articles investigated e-waste and the environment, two researched the willingness to recycle, four examined on awareness, and the last three probed e-waste policy and legislation as shown in figure 4 . It must be noted that most of these six main issues were also generally captured across all the publications as they are interlinked in the effective management of e-waste.
4.1.3. Distribution of papers by year
Figure 4. Distribution of papers by thematic area.
In the last decade, only three African countries amended their environmental laws to include e-waste: South Africa with the National Environmental Management Waste Amendment Act, 26 of 2014 (Ghosh et al., Citation 2016 ); Nigeria implemented the National Environmental Regulations S.I.23 of 2011 (Okorhi et al., Citation 2019 ) and Ghana drafted its e-waste management through the support of the Basel Convention in 2012 (Tetteh & Lengel, Citation 2017 ).
The first research question for the study was to ascertain the state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa. The findings show that research on e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa is still in its infancy stage with two countries dominating research. What is encouraging is the increase in the number of research articles that were published between 2016 and January 2020. The volume of e-waste is accumulating, yet research that can influence policymakers and governments to consider taking appropriate steps to manage e-waste is lacking. The fact that only 8.6% of reviewed articles were published in the Sabinet African Journals shows that there is need for African journals to promote emerging areas for more research such as e-waste and promote research work by African scholars.
4.2. Interpreting findings
The volume of e-waste in developing countries is accumulating at an alarming rate (Mmereki et al., Citation 2015 ). In Ghana, a monthly average of about 600 containers which are approximately 40-foot dock to offload e-waste (Amuzu, Citation 2018 ). This was corroborated by Grant and Oteng-Ababio ( Citation 2016 ) who highlighted that over 600 40-foot containers arrive at the port of Tema, feeding a complex e-waste market with an estimated 13,000 tons of e-waste processed annually. E-waste imported into Nigeria annually was approximately 400,000 tons (Nwagwu & Okuneye, Citation 2016 ). The Nigerian port of Lagos is receiving over 100 000 used computers monthly (Okorhi et al., Citation 2019 ). E-waste generated in South Africa was about 64,000 tons, with about 11% formally recycled (Machete, Citation 2017 ). The following subsections will discuss the themes that emerged from the analysis of the reviewed papers.
4.2.1. Human health
The impact of e-waste on human health has been devastating. Communities near e-waste recycling sites are prone to health and safety concerns such as inhalation of toxic chemicals and exposure to radiation (Jibiri et al., Citation 2014 ). A study by Machete ( Citation 2017 ) in South Africa confirmed human exposure to toxic metals such as arsenic, mercury, and cadmium whose effect on human health is catastrophic. Umesi and Onyia ( Citation 2008 ) highlighted that e-waste contained an array of toxic materials such as lead, mercury, barium, and beryllium. The burning of e-waste in open dumpsites causes the release of organic pollutants that affect human health (Ogungbuyi et al., Citation 2012 ). A study in Ghana showed that pollutants released during burning trigger respiratory infections, eye irritation, and asthma, among others (Acquah et al., Citation 2019 ; Umesi & Onyia, Citation 2008 ). In a similar study, Asampong et al. ( Citation 2015 ) noted that e-waste workers reported acute respiratory infections and chest pains; Peluola ( Citation 2016 ) also established that workers who dismantled EEE had skin and eye irritation while others complained of persistent coughing. This is supported by a survey by Peluola ( Citation 2016 ), who revealed that e-waste workers were at risk of absorbing hazardous substances through their skin as well as smoke inhalation. Lambrechts ( Citation 2016 ) and Nnorom and Osibanjo ( Citation 2011 ) also observed that e-waste recyclers used rudimentary and crude ways such as burning to recover useful parts without due care on the effect on their health. Adanu et al. ( Citation 2020 ) found that e-waste workers used stones, hammers and banging e-waste items on the ground to separate components. Acquah et al. ( Citation 2019 ) corroborated that e-waste workers relied on inefficient tools such as hammers and chisels, which led to musculoskeletal injuries.
Adanu et al. ( Citation 2020 ) reports that e-waste workers at the Agbogbloshie use their bare hands to sort, burn and savaging useful items from e-waste. A study by Burns et al. ( Citation 2019 ) confirmed that e-waste workers experienced lacerations to their hands due to manual processes during recycling. Yu et al. ( Citation 2017 ) and Burns et al. ( Citation 2019 ) provided evidence that e-waste workers experienced body pain, hearing loss, cuts, and coughs. Tetteh and Lengel ( Citation 2017 ) revealed that unregulated e-waste recycling led to the release of hazardous materials that polluted the environment leading to a rise in cancerous diseases among dumpsite workers and those within the vicinity. Another study by Agyei-Mensah and De-graft Aikins ( Citation 2010 ) concluded that about 50% of e-waste workers suffered chest pains and respiratory infections while others contracted various cancers. Olafisoye et al. ( Citation 2013 ) and Amuzu (2018) reiterated that exposure to hazardous metals damaged the nervous system, decreased mental capacity, and caused blood disorders. According to Acquah et al. ( Citation 2019 ), e-waste workers end up addicted to some drugs to manage the pain leading to drug resistance. Research conducted in Nigeria revealed that e-waste had caused congenital disabilities and infant mortality, damage to the brain, and other vital organs as well as respiratory, stomach, and skin infections (Nwagwu & Okuneye, Citation 2016 ).
4.2.2. Landfills
Developing countries resort to unregulated recycling that use manual processes to reclaim precious metals found in e-waste, these activities damage the environment through acid leaching and open burning, causing landfills and dumpsites to be the most polluted sites (Tetteh & Lengel, Citation 2017 ; Velis, Citation 2017 ). Ghana’s Agbogbloshie is one of the biggest landfills in the world, which covers over 20 acres, where crude and manual recycling takes place (Lambrechts, Citation 2016 ). The Agbogbloshie receives over 15% of the global e-waste where informal recycling is done, releasing lead, mercury, and zinc into the environment making the site the world’s most toxic (Boaten, Citation 2011 ). South Africa’s landfills in Badplass, Carolina, and Elukwatini have recorded high volumes of arsenic, lead, mercury, and cadmium, threatening the environment, and human life (Machete, Citation 2017 ). Nigeria’s Alaba is one of the largest dumpsites in West Africa, where recyclers burn and use crude recycling practices to recover useful parts (Jibiri et al., Citation 2014 ). Ogungbuyi et al. ( Citation 2012 ) reported that e-waste was being burnt in open sites in Nigeria, releasing pollutants that destroy the environment and human health. In their study, Olafisoye et al. ( Citation 2013 ) found that 75% of heavy metals found in landfills emanated from e-waste.
4.2.3. Recycling
Yu et al. ( Citation 2017 ) revealed that recyclers in most African countries lacked recycling facilities and resorted to dismantling, burning, and acid leaching to recover precious metals. To recover precious metals in e-waste, Umesi and Onyia ( Citation 2008 ) reported that recyclers resorted to manual and labour-intensive processes; this was supported by Peluola ( Citation 2016 ) who observed that recyclers resorted to dismantling and leaching of precious metals. In one study, over 71% of respondents reported that the Nigerian government had not yet build recycling facilities to treat e-waste (Okorhi et al., Citation 2019 ). Isimekhai et al. ( Citation 2017 ) reported that e-waste recyclers at the Alaba, Nigeria recovered precious metals such as copper and aluminium through manual dismantling and burning of EEE. The Agbogbloshie, in Ghana, is one of the world’s most polluted sites where crude and rudimentary methods such as manual dismantling and burning are used to recover precious metals (Kyere et al., Citation 2017 ). Similarly recycle workers at the Alaba dumpsite in Nigeria use crude methods such as burning to retrieve precious metals and re-usable components (Jibiri et al., Citation 2014 ). Grant and Oteng-Ababio ( Citation 2016 ) noted that South Africa was the only country in Sub-Saharan Africa that operated a formal recycling plant. Lawhon ( Citation 2013 ) reported that recyclers in Cape Town enhanced profitability by exporting PC boards to Europe for high-tech recycling.
4.2.4. Environment
Hundreds of tons of shipments of used EEE are exported to African countries to bridge the digital divide, but most of it is e-waste which ends up being burned in landfills thereby polluting the environment (Umesi & Onyia, Citation 2008 ). Scholars noted that e-waste recyclers in Africa lack the know-how and infrastructure and resort to the open burning of e-waste leading to the discharge of hazardous materials that damage the environment and human health (Nnorom & Osibanjo, Citation 2011 ; Olafisoye et al., Citation 2013 ). Most countries resort to open burning and incineration, to reduce e-waste accumulation, leading to environmental degradation (Agyei-Mensah & De-graft Aikins, Citation 2010 ). Yu et al. ( Citation 2017 ) and Isimekhai et al. ( Citation 2017 ) concluded that informal e-waste recycling and disposal in Sub-Saharan Africa led to the release of environmental contaminants that threatened living organisms. Improper handling of e-waste through the burning of monitors and cables lead to the release of harmful substances into the soil (Peluola, Citation 2016 ). Lambrechts ( Citation 2016 ) noted that most African countries did not have the knowledge to manage e-waste and therefore resort to dumping, which further leads to environmental degradation. In Ghana, improper e-waste recycling has led to contamination of the soil and rivers through the release of toxins from lead, mercury, arsenic among others affecting the Agbogbloshie’s informal workers and nearby communities (Amuzu, 2018; Srigboh et al., Citation 2016 ). Lambrechts ( Citation 2016 ) concurred that to recover precious materials, improper e-waste handling resulted in crude recycling practices that threatened the environment. Another study revealed that improper e-waste recycling led to exposure to hazardous metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury, and cadmium which affected the environment and public health (Machete, Citation 2017 ). A study conducted by Olafisoye et al. ( Citation 2013 ) revealed that e-waste contributed more than 75% of heavy metals such as Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and brominated flame-retardants found in landfills which pollute the environment. All these studies highlight how a lack of proper e-waste handling is affecting the environment.
4.2.5. Lack of policies
One of the significant challenges to e-waste management in the Sub-Saharan Africa region is the lack of specific policies, as current policies in most countries deal with general hazardous waste and cannot curb illegal importation and recycling of e-waste. Lambrechts ( Citation 2016 ) noted that the Basel Convention had reported that African countries had policies that covered general hazardous waste, and none had enacted laws that deal with e-waste. Olafisoye et al. ( Citation 2013 ) noted that many countries did not have specific e-waste policies, and this has led to the continuous discharge of toxic materials into the environment. Development of firm policies and the use of efficient technologies have been described as critical in e-waste management (Adanu et al., Citation 2020 ). Tetteh and Lengel ( Citation 2017 ) concurred that in most African countries, there was no coordination between various ministries to deal with e-waste. This was corroborated by Mmereki et al. ( Citation 2015 ) who observed that lack of specific e-waste policies in Botswana made it challenging to coordinate e-waste management roles and responsibilities. The harmful Waste Act HI 2004 in Nigeria banned the importation of hazardous waste but has failed to stop the thriving e-waste import business in the country (Nwagwu & Okuneye, Citation 2016 ). Umesi and Onyia ( Citation 2008 ) reiterated that Nigerian laws did not address e-waste disposal; Okorhi et al. ( Citation 2019 ) highlighted that e-waste management in Nigeria was based on any combination of the four existing laws; the Harmful Waste Act HI 2004; the National Environmental Protection Regulations S.I.15 of 1991; the National Environmental Regulation S.I.28 of 2008 and the National Environmental Regulations S.I.23 of 2011.
In 2016, Ghana passed Act 917 to support e-waste management efforts, but there has been little improvement (Oteng-Ababio et al., Citation 2020 ). Ineffective implementation of e-waste policies makes it easy for an average of 600 40-foot long containers to dock and offload e-waste every month in Ghana (Amuzu, 2018). This has seen Ghana’s Agbogbloshie becoming the biggest and one of the most notorious and polluted e-waste facility in the world (Burns et al., Citation 2019 ; Srigboh et al., Citation 2016 ). Bob et al. ( Citation 2017 ) observed that South Africa did not have e-waste policies but relied on various legislation that covered the management of hazardous waste. Tetteh and Lengel ( Citation 2017 ) argued that the country was leading with regards to effective e-waste management in Africa through its National Environment Management Act 107 of 1998, which recommends re-use, refurbish and proper e-waste management.
4.2.6. E-waste and livelihoods
E-waste recycling is a 55-billion-euro industry, and if proper policies and infrastructure are in place, the developing world could have a considerable stake in the recovery of precious metals such as gold and copper (Baldé et al., Citation 2017 ; Peluola, Citation 2016 ). Despite the economic potential, e-waste workers earn meagre incomes because of the use of archaic manual tools such as hammers and chisels (Acquah et al., Citation 2019 ). It was reported that the Agbogbloshie site in Ghana was responsible for refurbishing at least 25% of computers donated to schools, earning workers a reasonable income to meet their basic needs as well as support distant relatives (Amuzu, 2018). Lambrechts ( Citation 2016 ) noted that more than 30,000 e-waste recyclers earned their income from recycling and also contributed to Nigeria’s GDP; Grant and Oteng-Ababio ( Citation 2016 ) estimated that the Agbogbloshie site directly employed over 15,000 workers; Asampong et al. ( Citation 2015 ) concurred that informal workers in Ghana recovered gold, copper, silver among other metals from e-waste which they sold for their livelihood. Central to the e-waste value chain are the collectors who earn an average of USD3.50 per day, this is competitive compared to USD1.40 which is earned by other informal workers in Ghana (Grant & Oteng-Ababio, Citation 2016 ). In a similar study, Acquah et al. ( Citation 2019 ) noted that e-waste recyclers in Ghana earned about USD10.00 per week.
The first research question of the study sought to provide an overview of the state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa. The results revealed the state of e-waste management in the region, with 80% of the research conducted in Ghana, Nigeria and South Africa. The volume of e-waste is increasing at an alarming rate, yet most countries do not have policies and infrastructure to handle e-waste. In answering the second research question, the study identified the significant challenges regarding e-waste. The findings revealed that the lack of policy and limited recycling infrastructure are some of the main barriers to effective e-waste management. Results reveal that most Sub-Saharan African countries had no recycling facilities and resorted to dismantling, burning, and acid leaching to recover precious metals. Informal and rudimentary methods are prevalent such as the use of stones, hammers and chisels to separate components. E-waste is dumped in landfills such as the Agbogbloshie, Alaba and Elukwatini and has recorded high volumes of toxic chemicals. The impact of e-waste on human health has been devastating to communities near e-waste landfills which are prone to contracting various respiratory and skin diseases and contract various cancers. Controlling the informal e-waste market will prove challenging as studies revealed that e-waste workers earn more than other informal workers. We did not find any SLR that was done across a block such as the Sub-Saharan region. Our findings are similar to those of a study in India which established that lack of formal recycling, absence of policies and inappropriate handling were threatening e-waste management efforts (Heeks et al., Citation 2015 ). Schroeder et al. ( Citation 2019 ) reported that over 95% of e-waste was treated in slums in India, without protective equipment, thereby exposing workers to dangerous chemicals. These findings were corroborated by Orisakwe et al. ( Citation 2019 ) concluded that e-waste posed human health and environmental risks in Africa, where there were inadequate policies and infrastructure to recycle and dispose of safely.
In this paper, we provided an overview of the state of e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa, and we identified the significant challenges to e-waste management in the region. In an attempt to bridge the digital divide, developing countries have allowed the importation of used EEE, and this has resulted in extensive dumping of e-waste disguised as re-usable EEE. The article identified the main trends and gaps in e-waste management in developing countries such as lack of policies, awareness, and infrastructure. No country in Sub-Saharan Africa has specific laws that govern e-waste, and most rely on legislation that regulates hazardous waste. Most recycling is done informally using primitive methods to recover precious metals without considering the colossal damage on the environment and human health. The paper did spell out the economic benefits of e-waste; African governments must enact laws that allow e-waste recyclers to extract precious metals in an environmentally sustainable manner.
The selected databases do not cover all the top articles as most are accessible through paying substantive amounts of money in subscriptions; this may have limited the quality of selected papers. As we filtered research papers published between 2008-January 2020, we could have excluded some good papers. The search keywords may not have been exhaustive; thus, we could have missed some articles. Though the study covered the Sub-Saharan region, Ghana accounted for 40%, Nigeria with 28%, and South Africa accounted for 12% of the available literature, which may bring some bias.
In our paper, we make contributions to policymakers and the knowledge frontier. For policymakers, the paper stated the effect of e-waste, its management thereof, and how barriers to effective e-waste management could be handled. Governments and development agencies should collaborate and avail resources to educate and empower e-waste workers on human health and environmental protection. This SLR presents an overview of e-waste research in the region and make scholarly contributions in the field and provides a knowledge map that shows research trends and directions for future research in the field. Other researchers can benefit from this paper, by using it as a basis for future research, particularly, lack of research on e-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa that covers most of the countries. Future research can also focus on how e-waste management successes in the Global North could be adapted in the Global South, particularly in the Sub-Saharan Africa region.
*Database under Web of Science Group
**Database under Web of Science Group and SCOPUS
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Notes on contributors
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Informal waste management system in Nigeria and barriers to an inclusive modern waste management system: a review
Affiliation.
- 1 Public Health, School of Health and Social Care, Bournemouth University, Royal London House, Christchurch Road, Bournemouth BH1 3LT, UK. [email protected]
- PMID: 22480714
- DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2012.01.030
Objectives: To explore the activities of the informal waste management sector in Nigeria, and barriers to integrating them in an inclusive waste management system.
Study design: Literature review.
Methods: A literature review was undertaken to evaluate the informal waste management system and formal waste management system in Nigeria and other developing countries with similar settings. Nine databases were searched and 34 studies met the following inclusion criteria: evaluation of the role of informal waste collectors, recycling and solid waste management in developing countries.
Results: Most of the evaluated studies (97%, n = 33) acknowledged the significant environmental and socio-economic roles played by the informal waste collectors and scavengers in developing countries. The studies identified the following as barriers to inclusive waste management in Nigeria: repressive policy, unhygienic waste collection methods, lack of evidence to support activity, and low quality and quantity of secondary materials.
Conclusions: Scavengers and other groups of informal recyclers see waste as a source of income and livelihood, whilst the general public see it as an aesthetic problem and see the people engaged in resource recovery as a social nuisance. Integrating their informal services with the formal waste management system is a potential tool to empower these people to increase their skills in resource recovery and improve their working and living conditions. Inclusive waste management is a process, and observable changes are taking place in some developing countries where waste pickers and informal waste collectors have become environmental agents. A major limitation to the integration of informal waste collectors and scavengers is the social acceptance of their activity as a viable source of income, and of themselves as environmental agents in the sustainability of virgin resources.
Copyright © 2012 The Royal Society for Public Health. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Literature On Solid Waste Management In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay
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2.1.1 Purpose of the Literature Review
2.1.2 literature search, 2.2 solid waste management practices in developing countries., 2.2.1 waste generation and composition, 2.2.2 institutional arrangement, informal sector, 2.2.3 attitudes and preferences, 2.2.4 source separation.
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Table 1 Separate/mixed collection
Separate collection, mixed collection, 2.2.5 solid waste practices in universities of developing countries, 2.3 solid waste management practices in nigeria, 2.3.1 waste composition.
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2.3.2 Attitudes and Perceptions
2.3.3 institutional arrangement, 2.3.4 source separation, informal practices, formal practices., 2.3.5 solid waste practices in universities in nigeria, 2.4 solid waste practices in university of benin, benin-city, 3. summary of literature review, 3.1 methodologies, cite this work.
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International Congress and Exhibition "Sustainable Civil Infrastructures”
GeoMEast 2019: Recent Thoughts in Geoenvironmental Engineering pp 79–90 Cite as
“A Literature Review on Solid Waste Management: Characteristics, Techniques, Environmental Impacts and Health Effects in Aligarh City”, Uttar Pradesh, India”
- Harit Priyadarshi 8 ,
- Sarv Priya 9 ,
- Ashish Jain 8 &
- Shadab Khursheed 10
- Conference paper
- First Online: 01 November 2019
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1 Citations
Part of the Sustainable Civil Infrastructures book series (SUCI)
India is known as one of the most heavily settled countries in the world. It appears to be the second country to have the highest number of residents. With the total population of about expected data 1.37 billion in 2019. The management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in India has encountered problems. Each year, the population grew by 3–3.5%, as this factor arises, the rate of solid waste generation also rise up to 1.3% in Aligarh city, Uttar Pradesh a large number of ingenious factors like, rapid urbanization, rapid population density, rapid commercialization, uneven living standards and also enlargement of industrialization has created destructive consequences in terms of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste generations which are estimated at about 415 tons per day.
This paper emphasizes the waste characteristics, techniques, adverse environmental impacts, health risks, poor waste management practices and also problems associated with the solid waste management system at the municipal level.
The findings from this study indicates failure of the existing facilities due to lack of concern, high volume of waste generation, deficient collection space, delayed sanctioning of new landfill sites and a number of open-dump sites which generate fires. The innuendos of the waste management practices in the city are discussed.
- Sources of M.S.W
- Component of M.S.W
- Health risks and sustainable approaches
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Acknowledgement
First of all I would like to thanks Hon’ble Prime minister Narendra Damodar Das Modi to continue the dream of Mahatma Gandhi Make in India mission “Mission for sanitary India. The authors acknowledge all the persons involved in Aligarh Municipal Corporation (AMC) for providing all the pertinent information.
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Harit Priyadarshi & Ashish Jain
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Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Priyadarshi, H., Priya, S., Jain, A., Khursheed, S. (2020). “A Literature Review on Solid Waste Management: Characteristics, Techniques, Environmental Impacts and Health Effects in Aligarh City”, Uttar Pradesh, India”. In: Ameen, H., Jamiolkowski, M., Manassero, M., Shehata, H. (eds) Recent Thoughts in Geoenvironmental Engineering. GeoMEast 2019. Sustainable Civil Infrastructures. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34199-2_6
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Literature review on digitalization in facilities management and facilities management performance measurement: contribution of industry 4.0 in the global era.
1. Introduction
2. digitalization (dt) and performance measurement (pm) in facilities management (fm), 2.1. dt in fm, 2.1.2. geographic information systems (gis), 2.1.3. internet of things (iot), 2.1.4. reality capture technology (i.e., point cloud, photogrammetry, and 3d laser scanning), 2.2. pm in fm, 3. theory and methodology, 3.1. analysis of past research, 3.2. theories in the research of dt and pm in fm, 3.2.1. knowledge-based view, 3.2.2. transaction cost theory, 3.2.3. organizational theory, 3.3. research on dt and pm in fm, 3.3.1. hard fm (bim, iot, gis), 3.3.2. benchmarking in fm, 3.3.3. innovation in fm, 3.3.4. sustainability in facilities management (fm), 4. directions for future research, dts in fm and fm pm, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.
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Share and Cite
Lee, J.Y.; Irisboev, I.O.; Ryu, Y.-S. Literature Review on Digitalization in Facilities Management and Facilities Management Performance Measurement: Contribution of Industry 4.0 in the Global Era. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 13432. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313432
Lee JY, Irisboev IO, Ryu Y-S. Literature Review on Digitalization in Facilities Management and Facilities Management Performance Measurement: Contribution of Industry 4.0 in the Global Era. Sustainability . 2021; 13(23):13432. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313432
Lee, Jeoung Yul, Ilkhom Okmirzaevich Irisboev, and Yeon-Sik Ryu. 2021. "Literature Review on Digitalization in Facilities Management and Facilities Management Performance Measurement: Contribution of Industry 4.0 in the Global Era" Sustainability 13, no. 23: 13432. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313432
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS, AND POLICIES 163 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS, AND POLICIES
Solid waste management is a major environmental challenge in most Nigerian cities. Waste generation rate in Nigeria is estimated at 0.65-0.95 kg/capita/day which gives an average of 42 million tonnes of wastes generated annually. This is more than half of 62 million tonnes of waste generated in sub-Sahara Africa annually and where and how to channel these wastes becomes a huge problem for the nation. This study examines the problems and prospects of solid waste management in some selected Nigerian cities using the mixed method of data collection. The findings revealed that waste management in Nigerian cities is largely monopolized by the agencies of state governments (sub-national governments) which have limited capacity to tackle the problems of solid waste management in their cities. In addition, 52 % of wastes generated are organic wastes which creates additional disposal problems. Although the problems of solid waste management in Nigeria range from poor collection and disposal...
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Assessment of Waste Management Strategies in Nigerian Universities
Assessment of waste management in the university of calaber nigeria, bachelor thesis, 2015, 43 pages, grade: 2'1, kenobi krukru (author), table of contents, list of tables, list of figures, list of plates.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of study 1.2 Statement of the problem 1.3 Aims and objectives of study 1.4 Significance of the study 1.5 Research hypothesis 1.6 Study area 1.7 Scope of study
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Conceptual framework 2.3 Methods of solid waste management in the University of Calabar 2.4 Problems of waste management in the University of Calabar
CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY OF STUDY 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types of data 3.3 Sources of data 3.3.1 Primary data 3.3.2 Secondary data 3.4 Sampling technique 3.5 Population of study 3.6 Research design 3.7 Instrumentation 3.8 Procedure for data collection 3.9 Procedure for data analysis
CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Presentation of data 4.3 Test of hypothesis 4.4 Interpretation of results
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Summary 5.2 Conclusion 5.3 Recommendations
QUESTIONNAIRE
This study was undertaken to assess the management strategies of solid waste in the University of Calabar. In order to guide the study, six (6) objectives were identified and one hypothesis formulated. Several literatures were reviewed and data was collected through structured questionnaires. Collected data was analyzed using the Pearson product moment correlation and the student t-test. Findings revealed that there is efficient waste management in the University of Calabar. Meaningful recommendations were suggested to create awareness of the need for a clean environment for man’s habitation.
Table 4.1 Sex distribution of the respondents in the study area
Table 4.2 Distribution of educational status of respondents in the study area
Table 4.3 Age distribution of respondents in the study area
Table 4.4 Occupation of respondents in the study area
Table 4.5 Major components of waste generated in the study area
Table 4.6 Pattern of waste disposal in the study area
Table 4.7 Method of waste collection
Table 4.8 Pattern of waste collection
Table 4.9 Health/environmental impact of indiscriminate waste dumping
Table 4.10 Causes of solid waste littering the study area
Table 4.11 Factors responsible for the increase in waste volume in the study area
Table 4.12 Efficiency of waste management in the study area
Table 4.13 Recommendation for effective waste management
Table 4.14 Correlation between method of waste collection and efficiency of waste management in the study area
FIGURE 1: Map of the University of Calabar
PLATE 1: Final disposal site behind University of Calabar Library
PLATE 2: Burning of waste behind University of Calabar Library
PLATE 3: Waste littered behind MBA hall, main campus, University of Calabar
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 background of study.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, waste is any item that is longer in use or cannot be used for any good purpose. Solid waste has been defined as any useless, unwanted or discarded material (American Public Work Association, 1975) with insufficient liquid content to be free-flowing. Solid waste is sticky and weighty in nature and therefore has the capacity of accumulating and defacing the physical environment if not well managed (Sada and Odemoerho, 1988).
Solid waste is any moveable solid object which the owner wishes to dispose if it is no longer useful to the immediate owner. Solid wastes are non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes containing complex and sometimes hazardous substances. Man’s activities today generates tons of thousands of refuse which are seen littered everywhere causing diverse environmental problems. This calls for urgent expertise in waste management as the importance of a healthy environment for meaningful and productive work is tied to proper waste management. Waste is everybody’s business as we all generate waste in nearly everything we do. In the past, waste was considered as a resources. This was because the waste that was generated was mainly agricultural and was bio-degradable and as such disposal was not a problem as the volume product was low and these agricultural wastes helped to enrich the soil. This is not the situation today as waste is a major problem that needs to be solved as urgently as possible rather than been considered as a resource.
Over the years, studies have shown that rapid population growth and the growth of urban centres which followed the oil boom in the 1970s and industrialization came with a change in waste stream in Nigeria. This was as a result of increased use of goods to satisfy and meet the need of the teeming population resulting in the substantial increase in the amount of wastes generated. It is therefore important to note that waste generation and population growth work hand-in-hand.
In Nigerian towns and cities, solid wastes of different kinds are generated and disposed off indiscriminately causing lots of environmental and health hazards. A good example of such cities include Lagos, Kano, Calabar, Port Harcourt, Uyo, Aba, Yenagoa, etc. David (1985) noted that the issue of solid waste is not only familiar but assumed a global dimension in recent years causing series of environmental problems ranging from environmental degradation to pollution and imbalance, flooding, epidemics of infectious increase and decline in urban quality.
Solid waste can be classified into two broad categories – biodegradable solid waste and non-biodegradable solid waste. Biodegradable wastes are those wastes that can be easily decomposed by natural process ranging from food remnants to leaves from trees, cotton wool, clothes, banana peels, papers, etc. On the other hand, non-biodegradable wastes are those wastes that cannot be broken down or decomposed by natural processes. They can however be recycled or reused. Such wastes include bottles, glasses, plastics, cans and wrappings of all kinds, nylon bags, metals, needles and syringes, woods, etc. Solid wastes can also be classified based on their level of environmental contamination that is whether they are hazardous or non-hazardous to both man and the environment.
The sources from which wastes are generated ranges from municipal (street sweeping, sewage treatment plants, schools etc) to residential (flood wastes, plastics, vehicles, wood, glass etc), industrial (demolition materials, ashes etc) agricultural sources (spoiled food waste, pesticides, etc).
Solid waste disposal can be carried out using several options but before any of these options can be adopted, three vital factors should be considered. Firstly, the physical characteristics of the locality as regards the topography of the area where waste management activities are to be carried out because waste disposal often requires a large parcel of land for an efficient operation especially of sanitary landfill is to be adopted; secondly, the character, quality and quantity of waste to be disposed of. The quantity and nature of household refuse varies greatly from region to region and thirdly, the financial allocation available as adequate budget any allocation must be available for capital outlay and running cost. Various waste management authorities requires different types of extensive refuse vehicles that cost a lot to maintain at the commencement of the operations and these vehicles do not often remain serviceable for long due to poor operation, maintenance and non-availability of spare parts.
Solid waste disposal in the final placement, destruction of radioactive surplus, banned pesticides and chemicals, polluted soils and drums containing hazardous materials using approved methods. Several methods exist for the disposal of solid wastes and these range from open dumping to ocean/sea dumping, sanitary land filling composting, incineration, encapsulation, underground disposal and a more systematic method of waste management that includes recycling, reuse, recovery, segregation and reduction.
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environmental or aesthetics.
This research work focuses mainly on the management strategies of solid waste using the waste generated in the University of Calabar (UNICAL) as a case study. Solid waste in the institution and its management can be said to be as old as the institution itself since its birth in 1975. Waste management in the institution started in 1975 under the health and with 8 staffs. In 1995, it was made a unit and named the “Environmental Sanitation and Protection Unit” with a staff strength of over 64 persons. A present, the unit has a staff strength of over 200 persons, 9 supervisors and 1 unit head. The management practice in place in the University of Calabar is daily collection and disposal with waste bins being posted at strategic points across the main campus, library, hostel and staff quarter areas. These bins are being emptied and disposed off when they become full.
Wastes do not only threaten the beauty and aesthetics of the institution but also the very health of its inhabitants. The intention of this research is to examine the strategies that are adopted in the management of solid waste in the University of Calabar.
1.2 Statement of the problem
One of the major problems man faces today is that of solid waste disposal and management as waste is seen littered and scattered everywhere defacing the physical environment. Nobody likes to think of waste but the fact remains that solid waste is a pressing concern of our modern society. Over the years, the amount of the waste generated has grown steadily in part because of increasing population and more so because of changing life-styles and the increasing use of disposal materials. The challenges posed by this waste is that it is generated at a pace much faster than available means to manage it. The increasing rate at which waste is generated is 70% as compared to 30% of effective management and disposal methods. The problem of waste management in the University of Calabar is worsened by the ever-increasing population in the institution which results in an increase in the use of writing papers, pens and other materials.
The smell of offensive odours cannot be taken for granted. This problem is further compounded by hawkers who dump their waste indiscriminately everywhere. The indiscriminate littering of solid waste in our campus has reached an alarming rate. Evidence shows that the indiscriminate disposal of solid waste has a multiplicity effect on the environment. This greatly degrades the environment of its aesthetics and even causes diseases. The increased use of disposable plastics, cups and polythene materials for packaging goods have given rise to new waste disposal problems. Some of these materials are non-biodegradable and when burnt gives rise to air pollution.
The rapid growth of population in the University as people go in pursuit of higher/learning and exposure for a better tomorrow is posing a serious problem as regards waste generation. Dumping of refuse along street corners around the campus and their nearness to hostels, offices, lecture rooms and halls and the time lag in evacuating them constitutes another serious environmental health hazard in the study area. These refuse dumps serve as home for vermins such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches and other vectors of infectious disease.
One of the greatest problems facing humanity today is that of waste management. In all cities and rural areas, waste disposed poses the greatest environmental problem. The rate in which waste is generated, surpasses the rate at which it is evacuated. Upon this premises, one tends to wonder what could actually be responsible for this environmentally unfriendly character. Is it the orientation or the psychology of the people lack of central waste dumps or is it a deliberate attempt of polluting the environment or perhaps the various authorities responsible for waste disposal cannot cope with the volume of waste been generated.
Another problem of solid waste management is the diversity of the waste being generated which results in a variety of potential health and welfare effects, the treatment of which is complicated by the fact that each type of waste often demands specific and yet different methods of disposal and management. Waste is an age-mate of mankind and part of the normal working system of man’s activity on the face of the earth. Though it is an integral constituent of all human activity, its presence today is becoming unbearable causing serious problems in the environment. Waste in ancient times was biodegradable and non-toxic and could hardly cause hazards. Today, copious waste generation pollutes many quarters even in rural areas. Every facet of man’s endeavour now face the danger of reckless thro-away; he wastes food, clothes, money, time, shoes, utensils, furniture, paper, machines, metals etc. It has now come to a point where solid waste stands face to face and side by side with man. The reason is man’s technology to master and conquer his world (environment).
Even though the environmental sanitation and protection unit in the University of Calabar is trying to maintain environmental sanitation, more needs to be done to manage the wastes been generated. The introduction of disposal containers and bins is a right step in solving or reducing this problem. However, these containers are often left to fill and spill garbage on the ground causing a very unpleasant sight. This results in irritation not to mention the offensive odours coming from such garbage area with the infestation of rats, cockroaches, insects, flies and other disease vectors and rodents. The need for this study arises as an urgency to update waste management strategies and also educate students on their attitude towards waste disposal especially those around the hostels.
1.3 Aims and objectives of study
The main aim of this work was to assess the problems of improper solid waste disposal. To guide the research, the following objectives were put in place.
i. To determine the major components of waste generated. ii. To assess the efficiency of waste management in the study area. iii. To examine the patterns of waste disposal and collection in the study area iv. To assess the methods of waste disposal in the University of Calabar v. To assess the health and environmental impacts of improper waste disposal in the study area. vi. To make recommendations that would help in the management of waste in the study area.
1.4 Significance of the study
Sequel to recent trends in the demand for the useful information as regards solid waste management, this research comes as an information pack that will be very useful to the general public as well as the authorities of the University of Calabar as he problems of waste generation and management roots itself to everybody.
This research will be of immense benefit to the environmental sanitation and protection unit of the University of Calabar, researchers and policy makers who may wish to carryout more research on the same problem.
1.5 Research hypothesis
For the purpose of this study, the following hypothesis was formulated and it stated thus;
Ho: There is efficient waste management in the study area.
Hi: Is there efficient waste management in the university of Calabar?
This hypothesis will be further tested in the process of this research work.
1.6 Study area
This study was carried out in the University of Calabar, Nigeria.
The University of Calabar is located in Calabar, the capital of Cross River State, an ancient metropolitan centre in Nigeria. It was founded in 1975. The University of Calabar is located on latitude 4054N and longitude 8019E. The already developed area of the University covers an area of about 17 hectares site but there is still about 350 hectares of dry land on the east bank.
Land use pattern
The land use pattern of the University of Calabar includes the existing main campus which is made up of the faculty of agriculture, social sciences, education, lecture halls, registrar’s office and the former vice-chancellor’s office. There is also a computer centre (AfriHub), the administrative unit of the school, post office, security houses, medical centre and the open pavilion.
There is also the University library area (new academic campuses) on a 50 hectares site which is closely integrated with the already existing main campus also on the west bank which houses the school library, faculties of arts, sciences, management sciences, medical college, law, institute of oceanography, laboratory and lecture halls/pavilions. The University of Calabar also has the students hostels (halls, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9), the post graduate hostels and the school staff quarters.
For the purpose of this research, much attention will be given to the waste generated in the main campus, the new library area and the students’ hostels.
The University of Calabar has a population of between 32,543- 35,000 people comprising of both students, staffs (both academic and non-academic staffs and businessmen and women).
The topography of the study area is slightly sloppy and soil texture is a mixture of sand and loam with a temperature ranging from between 22 to 29 degrees Celsius.
Socio-economic activities
Most of the staff of the institution are civil servants since the institution is owned by the Federal Government. Varieties of businesses take place within the school which generates income for both the school, government and other individuals. Some of these businesses include the school business centre (AfriHub), the filling station, commercial stores around the hostels and staff quarters, open spaces within the campus where writing materials (pens, pencils, books, erasers, etc) and other items are being sold such as pure water, biscuit, soft drinks etc. Also there are bus drivers who convey students from one point within the campus to the other. All these activities take place within the campus and generated income for the school because these business men and women pay some amount of money to the school for the space in which they ate given to run their business.
All these activities produce large amounts of waste daily and will help to provide useful data in the course of this research.
1.7 Scope of study
This work is limited to the confines of the University of Calabar with particular emphasis around the hostels, main campus and library area because of the large concentration of people around these areas. This research shall focus mainly on the “management strategies of social waste” using the waste generated in the University of Calabar as a case study. Recommendations will be made based on the findings and results obtained.
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 introduction.
Over the years, much literature has been devoted to the problem of solid waste generation, its disposal methods and its management strategies both in developing and developed countries. Recently in Nigeria, these have become a major issue of concern to both government and individuals.
There are today many features of social waste management and disposal on our radio, television and newspapers in form of debates, talks, suggestion and enlightenment programmes.
2.2 Conceptual framework
Solid waste is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as “useless, unwanted or discarded material with insufficient liquid content to be free flowing”. Sewell (1975) defined solid waste as man’s unwanted material that cannot flow directly into streams or rise immediately into the air. Encyclopedia international (1977) define solid waste as any superfluous or rejected solid material consisting of garbage, rubbish, ashes, street sweeping, dead animals, abandoned automobiles, industrial wastes, demolition and construction materials, agricultural waste and mining industrial waste that do not decompose.
Solid waste are the non-liquid, non-gaseous residue of our manufacturing, construction, cooking, recreation, agriculture and other activities that are been used and discarded. They are found any where man is found from marines, to stores, homes, offices, factories, hospitals, streets, and even the primitive camps of traditional nomads (Berry Horton, 1974).
The problem of solid waste is as old as the first man on earth and the history of disposal can be traced to the early man as he gathered for his sustenance from farming and hunting and discarded the unwanted materials from his everyday routine which resulted in building up of filth (Sewell, 1975). According to Lindsay (1970), we are suffering from the mistakes of decades that until recently we have hardly seemed to notice what Bourton (1973) views as “new ways of solving old problems”.
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Literature On Solid Waste Management In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay
Research both past and present into solid waste in Nigeria like most developing countries with an absence of adequate solid waste management system has been focused more on adequate collection and disposal options than on the waste generators, storage or even an avenue for waste reduction which aids in reuse and recycling, hence creating major gaps. These gaps are areas that need to address to ensure that there is a sustainable management of solid waste generated to prevent environmental hazards.
2.1.1 Purpose of the Literature Review
This chapter review gives an overview of the situation of solid waste management in developing countries critically examining and summarising studies by various researchers in academic books, professional and academic journals, published and unpublished works and electronic media. This literature review would aid in identifying appropriate methodology to achieve the aim of this research.
In addition, source separation a relatively understudied concept has been identified and recommended by many researchers as an avenue for waste reduction. It has also been suggested as providing alternative means of practicing proper waste management apart from collection and disposal. (Cointreau-Levine & Gopalan, 2000:Imam et al, 2008)
This study into institutional solid waste management with the aim of identifying dynamics that influence/affect separation at source at households in the campus will create a means of addressing waste reduction and proper implementation of solid waste management options. According to UNEP (2005), the logical starting point for the proper management of solid waste is to reduce the amounts of waste managed, either informally within the generator’s site or formally (externally) by another entity once the waste is discarded by the generator. Thereby reducing waste quantities collected or otherwise managed.
2.1.2 Literature Search
The search for literature can be very time consuming and futile if proper strategies are not developed. To aid in the literature search, the following was prepared:
Firstly, the topic, boundary (Developing countries: Nigeria) and problem statement was agreed on. Then I identified of the disciplines with a stake in solid waste. They include:
Health, Science and Technology
Waste & Waste Management
Environmental & Urban
Secondly, Keywords broad and narrow were developed. They are:
Municipal Solid waste , Solid waste Management
Institutional Solid Waste
Separation at source , Source separation
Waste segregation, separation
Household solid waste manag*
Participation/Incentives in solid waste
Motivating factors, attitudinal behaviours
Solid waste management in Nigeria
University of Benin
To this end, the author sought the advice of the WEDC resource centre manager. She showed me books and journals on solid waste (management) but told me that most of the journals were available online for latest on any research and my search will be more extensive using the internet. She also recommended the use of Loughborough University, search engine Metalib, for searching and interrogation of the various databases for articles and journals on the subject matter (Science direct, CSA illumina)
Following her recommendation and my initial write up, a data interrogation search was done using Metalib on the following database using the keywords above, either truncated, with * or adding two keyword together using the OR because the AND was giving irrelevant data .
Environmental Sciences and Pollution management Abstracts (CSA Illumina)
Aqualine (CSA Illumina)
Science Direct
From this site, the following journals were found with relevant data.
Waste Management
Waste Management and Research
Habitat International
Environmental Management
Resource, Conservation and Recycling
Google Search Engine and Goggle Scholar were searched using the keywords above.
The sources of information obtained include:
More Journals articles from the above stated journals
Solid waste Management Volume 1:United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP)
J.C Agunwanba:(Google scholar) with articles on Waste management in some parts of Nigeria
The World Bank; Urban Solid Waste management (community initiatives)
WEDC & WELL factsheets and studies: solid waste management
I chose this approach to ensure an extensive and appropriate search in all areas of solid waste management and Research into developing countries of which Nigeria is apart. My use of the Internet was to ensure that as many recent journals, conferences and researches in Nigeria are available for scrutiny.
This systematic review will initially focus on identifying waste characteristics and components, then the roles and involvement of the different stakeholders, their attitudes and perspectives towards waste and finally the different concepts of source separation as it is practiced. This would help in analyzing and recognizing the past and present problems and solutions in cities and universities in developing countries especially Nigeria.
The summary section would scrutinize the methodologies used in the above reviewed literature and its adaptation for use in this research. Also included are the main findings from the reviewed literature and the gaps in knowledge this research aims to address.
2.2 Solid waste management practices in Developing countries.
In an attempt to accelerate the pace of its industrial development, an economically developing nation may fail to pay adequate attention to solid waste management. Such a failure incurs a severe penalty later in the form of reusable resources needlessly lost and a staggering adverse impact on the environment and on public health and safety.(UNEP, 2005) This is the problem presently facing most developing countries: rapid population growth due to rapid urban development hence more waste to manage. (Singhal & Pandey, 2001)
2.2.1 Waste Generation and Composition
The saying goes that “if you can measure it you can manage it” this is a viewpoint that is especially important and a solution that most developing countries have not been able to accomplish in solid waste management. There is no measure of the waste generated and so management becomes difficult and inefficient.
According to( Vaughan , 1971), information on the composition and quantity of solid waste is indispensable to design, implementation and operation of any solid waste management system of today and helps to forecast the requirements of tomorrow.
As stated above most developing countries are plagued with solid waste management problems that are degrading the urban environment and posing a serious threat to the natural resources and consequently holding back development (Sujauddin.,M., et al 2008) solving this problem will require knowledge about the per capital waste generated, composition and also attitudes towards waste. The authors found that there are many variables that affect the composition and the quantities of waste generated this include population growth, the socioeconomic factors (income, education, age, land ownership) which is the reverse for most developed countries.
The major constituents of developing countries waste is about 66% organic, which is about 30% of the total waste generated showing that composting, would be a very good way of waste management (recycling). (ibid)
2.2.2 Institutional Arrangement
The key institutions responsible for solid waste management services include public sector, formal private sector, informal private sector and community based non-governmental organisations. (ABC, 1988) The proper identification of their roles and responsibilities has been cited as a major influence in a sustainable solid waste management. At present, the public sector is responsible for service delivery of solid waste management in most developing countries and they are finding it difficult due to the rapid explosion in population growth hence more waste to manage. Some major problems that affect the municipalities’ inadequacy to provide good solid waste system include poor planning, lack of experienced staff, inappropriate equipments and technology, insufficient funds and landfill sites for disposal.( Coad, 2005: Hossain & Siwar 2002).
Collection, transportation and disposal have been a major problem in delivering efficient solid waste management services. In India cities collection efficiency is between 40 -70 % due to inadequate transport capacity and deficient workforce even with the municipalities’ allocation of 85-90% of the total budget to the service (Nema, 2004: Sharholy et al 2008)
To rectify this inadequacy and provide better services some sources have recommended institutional changes like privatization “transferring of the responsibilities to private sector while the public sector deals with policies and regulations” (Hossain & Siwar, 2002: Cointreau-Levine et al, 2000: World Bank,2003). The authors have argued that privatization will reduce the burden on government, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of municipal solid waste (MSW) services, decreases costs, source reduction and improve recycling thereby reducing the waste that goes for final disposal and increasing the life cycle of disposal sites. They also state that this can only work with sustainable frameworks supported by viable government policies and regulations.
Poor solid waste management creates serious threat to human health and well-being especially with indiscriminate open dumping which clogs drains and sewerage creating breeding grounds for rodents and insects leading to disease spread and ground water contamination.( Majani,2000:Gonzenbach.& Coad, 2007: Kumar et al, 2009)
To aid in proper solid waste management certain cities have set rules (Bennagen et al ,2002: Sarkhel & Banerjee, 2009) to necessitate the mandatory segregation of waste at generators level and also the concordance between collection and disposal facilities to ensure the establishment of local recycling and composting plants.
The study showed that households were ready to participate and their participation would increase if there was going to be regular collection, variable user charges and appropriate garbage collection i.e. not collecting both recyclables and other waste in the same vehicle. (Bennagen et al., 2002)
Informal Sector
The role of the informal sector (waste pickers, scavengers, sweepers) in solid waste management is identified as been crucial in waste reduction though to what amount it cannot be effectively determined.(Wilson et al , 2006). Most of their activities are driven by the need to supplement income and to reduce poverty. They operate at all levels in the solid waste chain from generation to disposal removing the recyclables and trading it. These waste pickers with organisation and support would create jobs for the minority in the society, reduce poverty, save municipalities money, improve industrial competitiveness, conserve natural resources and protect the environment. The government in many developing countries: Argentina, Brazil, India, Uruguay, Colombia, Mexico have identified the necessities of recognising and identifying this stakeholders especially in light of attaining Goal 7 of the millennium development goals thereby creating an inclusive, socially desirable, economically viable and environmentally sound solid waste management system. Waste pickers activities are recognised for their role in reducing the waste to be collected transported and disposed e.g. Jakarta 25% reduction. (Medina, 2008)
2.2.3 Attitudes and Preferences
Attitude is termed in this study as the feeling and thoughts while perception is “insight and awareness” which encourages participation.
To ensure the sustainability of any SWM system there has to be a change of government perception to that of recognising the importance of people. The current global challenges of urban solid waste (Ali, 2006(Ed)) states demand a people centred approach, change in public attitude to consumption and increased relationship between the people and the government. With new approaches to waste management to tackle the challenges of the increased waste generated by the population, increased cost of waste management leads to increase user charges. This (ibid) stated will only be sustainable if the government recognises the importance of people in planning, designing and operating any solid waste system.
Bisson (2002) stated that since waste is a product of human behaviour, to maintain a good waste management we need information on the behaviour and attitude of people with regard to waste and accurate data on waste generation
Source separation and other recycling practices at households is greatly supported in its role to reduction of waste, municipality costs but in practice might not be successful because of the understanding of funds and the workload involved. (Chung S.S & C.S Poon, 1996: Ghorbani et al, 2007). The authors concluded that economic incentives as well as education about environmental benefits of waste separation by householders would result in active participation of people in separating wastes in the home. Chung S.S & C.S Poon (1996) further found that consumption rate might increase if waste is recycled hence education awareness programs. They suggested that the involvement of all household members and not only the housewives, binary not multiple separation schemes will further increase its success rate.
One likely consequence of households paying close attention to their refuse is that people will become more aware of the waste they generate and will become less wasteful thus saving resources and further reducing collection costs. (Kassim, 2006)
Various authors (Bennagen., June 2002: Sujauddin.,M., et al 2008) have reported that there is an eagerness for communities to participate in solid waste management schemes, pay for services but the payment should not be unit but as per user and with government support.
2.2.4 Source Separation
Source separation according to GDRC (n.d) is the setting aside of compostable and recyclable materials from the waste stream before they are collected with other MSW, to facilitate reuse, recycling, and composting. During the UN conference in Johannesburg in 2002 reduction of waste through source separation was affirmed as one of the steps, which the local government can implement to maximize environmental sound waste use, recycling and diversion of useful materials from the waste stream.
Facing the problems of solid waste management, (Strange, K 2002: UNEP, 2005) argues can be done through plans and programs which encourage source separation and this he stated will help in minimising waste for disposal. Schübeler et al (1996) further added that the introduction of source separation ought to be in a pragmatic and incremental manner beginning with pilot activities to access and encourage the interest and willingness of users to participate.
In most developing countries, the practice of source separation is by the informal sector at a very small scale. In cities of developing countries, source separation provides a means of employment, reduces the total amount of waste for disposal, and at landfills through the support of governing bodies and community based organisation (Lardinios & Furedy, 1999: Fehr et al, 2009)
Waste separation increases the quality of produced compost and recyclables, and optimizes incineration. It also enables better financing of waste management activities and minimizes the energy and labour inputs to any downstream processes (Murray, 1999).
Source-separation pilot programs have been tested in some developing countries but total recovery of recyclables have been hindered due to the large amount of water contents in the waste and high percentage of food waste food waste (Zhuang et al,2007: Tadesse., 2008),
The motivations for materials separation and reuse in developing countries include: scarcity or expense of virgin materials; the level of absolute poverty; income supplement, the frugal values of even relatively well-to-do households; and the large markets for used goods and products made from recycled plastics and metals. (UNEP, 2005: Sarkhel & Banerjee, 2009: Fehr et al, 2009) Fehr et al (2009) further recommended the introduction of legal instruments within a municipal model that mandate source separation and encourages educational and legal measures for solid waste management success.
(Joseph, 2006; Zhuang et al, 2007: Fehr et al, 2009 agree that any source separation program needs people centred participation, monitoring, awareness creation and support.
Below are some of the advantages of source separated over co-mingled waste
Table 1 Separate/mixed collection
Separate collection, mixed collection.
Extends landfill life. Removes potential recyclables from the waste stream.
Lowers net disposal costs.
Done by the household. No extra cost for the community.
Highly applicable to residential waste.
Industrial waste may be recycled through industrial waste exchanges.
An effective and reliable tool for recycling.
Can be implemented on small-scale, then expanded.
Recyclables are usually uncontaminated by garbage and other debris
It is not time or space consuming for the residents.
The facility does not need additional space to handle recyclables.
Basic technology is needed
The effectiveness of the collection system does not depend on how people prepare recyclables.
There is no need for established secondary markets
Guidelines for Municipal Solid Waste Management in the Mediterranean Region ( )
2.2.5 Solid waste practices in universities of developing countries
Higher institutions have the responsibility of having high moral and ethical obligation to the environment because they are expected to produce leaders in environmental protection movement.
Armijo de Vega (2008) research acknowledges the good use of campuses as a case study for solid waste management (SWM) options for the following reasons;
Not much has not been reported on the topic,
They been independent to a great extent, campuses can accommodate pioneering SWM approaches that can filter down to other communities later,
Thirdly, since it involves students at various levels it can serve to sensitize as well as easily train them in good SWM practices, and
Finally, SWM practices adopted by higher education institutions have a great potential of being adopted by surrounding communities because these institutions generally are held in high esteem.
The efforts towards responsible waste management should stem from these institutions. Besides, appropriate waste management would bring benefits to the institution such as a reduction of the financial resources destined to waste management, but, above all, it would set an example to the students and the community. (Mbuligwe .2002: Maldonado, 2006) Furthermore the authors discovered that the type of waste generated on campus (recyclables and organic) provides a lot of avenue for reuse, recycling and recovery thereby reducing the quantity of waste disposed in landfill by more than 60%.(ibid)
2.3 Solid waste management Practices in Nigeria
2.3.1 waste composition.
Nigeria is a nation that exemplifies chronic solid waste management problems in conjunction with population growth. It is the most populous country in Africa, with over
120 million residents (World Bank 1996), and over the past 50 years, has had the third largest urban growth rate in the world at 5.51% annually (UNWUP 1999).
In Nigeria though there has been some studies into the determination of waste composition and generation to enhance the provision of solid waste management services, this studies are outdated (Adedibu 1985) or have been done at the landfills (Mbuligwe., 2002). This does not take into consideration the quantities of waste that are separated by the waste pickers and animals before collection. (Ogwueleka, 2009: Iman et al 2008 ) agree that indistinctive legislative policies and regulation, lack of data on the generated waste, inappropriate technology for collection and disposal, no planned framework and inadequate population characteristics are some of the factors affecting the knowledge of municipal solid waste composition in Nigeria to develop better disposal methods. Other factors include political, economic and social.
The majority of substances composing municipal solid waste include paper, vegetable matter, plastics, metals, textile, rubber and glass (Ogwueleka, 2009:Imam., 2008). They found that the major component of solid waste is organic waste (40-64%) which is wetter, corrosive with high density (Ogwueleka, 2009)and agree that composting will be an adequate solid waste practice to reduce the waste especially (Iman et al 2008) with the removal of government subsidies for the sale of fertilizers creating a market for it.
Controlled landfill (Adedibu, 1985) stated is another SWM option for disposal. This is not recommendable because of the complex technology and funds which the government cannot provide. Efficient recycling and composting could save 18.6% in waste management costs and 57.7% in landfill cost (Agunwamba, 1998).
Waste characteristics vary according to season, population, climate, and industrial production, the size of markets for waste materials and the extent of urbanization, effectiveness of recycling, and work reduction. (Ogwueleka, 2009). Other factors affecting increased waste generation among residents in Nigeria cities are change in social economic and educational circumstance.
2.3.2 Attitudes and Perceptions
According to (Agunwamba, 2003: Iman et al 2008) public awareness, social ideals, beliefs and attitudes to waste can affect all stages in the solid waste management process. This has an impact on household waste storage, waste segregation, recycling, collection frequency, littering and “fly-tipping” (illegal dumping), willingness to pay for waste management services, and the level and type of opposition to waste treatment and disposal facilities.
In Nigeria, the general public attitude towards waste management is poor. . A man may live in a neatly kept house but refuse to cooperate with his fellow residents in keeping the surroundings of the building clean. As long as the waste materials are not inside his house, he feels no concern. Government attitude towards solid waste management is the introduction of in appropriate technology without the consultation of the people using the services (Agunwamba, 1998). In addition, they consider the informal sector a menace (Ogwueleka, 2009) and try all means to eradicate them.
Most Nigerians associated wealth with lavish spending, which generates much waste as a by-product. They perceive waste pickers/workers as poor and so make little or no effort to cooperate in waste management activities. Similarly, in homes waste removal to bins classified as children’s work. Since the bins were not designed with, their small stature wastes are dumped on the ground, creating more work for the waste workers and increasing collection time reducing efficiency. (ibid)
As for the waste workers, poor remuneration and stagnation in promotion has created a reduced interest in proper solid waste management. They go about doing their jobs haphazardly. The poor attitude to waste been exhibited can be changed with proper enlightenment programs and patient extension efforts that are reinforced continuously even after project completion. This will negate ignorance, materialistic tendencies, and apathy and reinforce their responsibility to the environmental. (Agunwamba, 1998)
2.3.3 Institutional Arrangement
With knowledge of the illegal dumping of toxic waste in June 1988, (Adegoroye., 1994) the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) was created. The landmark Federal legislation on environmental protection in Nigeria was the decree Number 58 of 1988, which established the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA). The specific role of FEPA with respect to solid waste management is to (Onibokun, 1999):
Study the most reliable systems that are appropriate for local, domestic and industrial wastes.
Specify waste disposal and treatment methods that take into consideration the geological and environmental setting and encourage recycling.
Specify waste disposal sites that guarantee the safety of surface and underground water systems.
Set up and enforce standards for adequate sanitary facilities for the disposal of human and other solid wastes in dwellings, housing estates and public facilities in both urban and rural areas.
Establish monitoring programmes including periodic surveillance of approved waste disposal sites and their surroundings and waste water systems.
Establish monitoring stations for the control of the disposal of leachate from dumpsites into surface water and groundwater systems
Under this Act, all states and local government set up their own environmental protection body for the protection and improvement of the environment within its jurisdiction. In 1999 (Ogwueleka, 2009), FEPA was taken over by the Federal Ministry of Environment to combat some of the challenges faced which include absence of pollution waste management laws, lack of environmental enforcement, funding, role conflicts power play between FEPA workers and some powerful individuals whose companies not ready to pay for services. It still conformed to all the regulation stated above but even with this change of hands, there was still inadequate provision of solid waste services in Nigeria.
According to (Imam et al, 2008: Ogwueleka, 2009) solid waste management in Nigeria is characterised by in efficient collection methods, insufficient coverage of the collection system and improper disposal. Lack of institutional arrangement, insufficient funds absence of standards and by-laws, insufficient information on waste composition and quantity, inflexible work schedule and inappropriate technology transfer are the common constraints faced by environmental agencies in solid waste management.75-95% of the revenue of solid waste is spent on collection and disposal and only 40-70% is collected from the urban areas. Most of the rural areas have no SWM facility.
Presently emphasis is been focused on better institutional arrangement through privatization and less on collection and disposal due to the inadequate government service delivery. Privatization is been tested in cities like Abuja (Imam., 2008), Lagos (Ogwueleka, 2009) and Benin (Ogu., 2000) but have not improved the service delivery due to all the factors above including corruption, lack of planning of route service delivery, affordability and acceptability.
Finally, (Ogwueleka, 2009) argued that since in Nigeria there is an abundance of cheap labour the use of a low capital cost and labour intensive solution that reduces poverty will be preferred. It should include low technology like handcarts and pickup trucks for collection, informal sector involvement (waste pickers), training, local waste recycling and reduction projects, transfer stations to reduce operating cost, community participation and involvement.
In conclusion Adegoreyo, (1994) stated that stable leadership and firm commitment of government in formative years to any enforcement programme with set goals, objectives and responsibilities including capacity building should be uttermost to ensure the improvements.
2.3.4 Source Separation
Studies into source separation in Nigeria though it is highly relevant according to most researchers are not been preformed. (Onibokun., 1999: Ogu., 2000: Agunwamba, 2003).This has constrained the author to review literature of other developing countries, implementation methods and success rate of source separation to infer if it will adequate for Nigeria.
The scavengers do little or no form of recycling it is more of reuse. (Agunwamba, 2003)
Informal Practices
In Nigeria, gifts of clothes and goods to relatives, charities, and servants as a means of source separation are significant in waste reduction. However, the greatest amount of materials recovery is achieved through the following:
(a) Itinerant waste buyers (IWBs): These are waste collectors who often go from door-to-door, collecting specific recyclable materials and/or organic wastes from households, which they buy or barter. Individual IWBs tend to specialize in one or two kinds of materials.
(b) Street waste picking: Secondary raw materials recovered from mixed waste found on streets or extracted from communal bins before collection.
(c) Municipal waste collection crew: Secondary raw materials recovered from vehicles transporting waste to disposal sites.
(d) Waste picking from dumps: Waste pickers/ scavengers sort through waste before it is covered at the site of final disposal, which is still generally open dumping in Nigeria. (Wilson et al, 2009)
From the point of view of waste reduction, the traditional practices of repair and reuse, and the sale, barter, or gift-giving of used goods and surplus materials are an advantage to the poorer countries. Quantities of inorganic post-consumer wastes entering the MSW stream would be higher if these forms of waste reduction did not exist.(UNEP,2005)
Formal Practices.
There is no formal practice in place for source separation at present although Federal Ministry of Environment (2000) specified in the Blue print for municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in Nigeria that separation at source is one of the viable alternatives/complement to an integrated solid waste management programme.
2.3.5 Solid waste practices in universities in Nigeria
2.4 solid waste practices in university of benin, benin-city.
Solid waste management in the university is the collection and disposal of waste. The waste generated is placed in bins for collection. There is no informal sector to do any separation though some of the waste workers salvage the useful recyclables for reuse but this does not even account for up to 1% of the total amount generated. Most times the waste generated is so much that not all the waste is removed during collection so decomposition begins on the left over waste, which will cause bad odours and breeding grounds for rodents and disease carrying insects. Some leachates are also produced which might pollute the land and water around. The final disposal site for the waste is an open dump that allows further pollution because there is no control over waste deposited or the by-products of open dump disposal. Without adequate attention, there is a major risk to the health of the staff and students in the university and to the environment.
3. Summary of Literature Review
3.1 methodologies.
Most of the researches into waste characterization were studied using quantitative and qualitative methods (questionnaires, interviews, observation, focus groups and fieldwork) this is to ensure the viability of the studies and close the loop (Chung S.S & Poon C.S.,1996: Ghorbani M. et al , 2007:Imam., 2008). For sampling, random sampling was employed since some information about the sample space is known. Most of the analysis performed was with the aid of statistical methods, which allows for the identification and comparison of variables Fehr.M et al: 2009). In most of the field works, waste measurements and waste segregation was carried out to identify the components and the quantity of waste generated. In accessing people attitudes in most research, key informant interviews and questionnaires were use that produced the outcome sought (Bennagen et al, 2002: Ghorbani M. et al ,2007)
From the literature review, so far mixed method of analysis seems to have worked given the assumed inference at research outcomes.
3.2 Conclusion
For any solid waste management solution to work there has to be a party or parties responsible for its effective and efficient management from generation to disposal e.g. govt, NGO’s CBO’s or even the generator but this is not the case in Nigeria. Water and sanitation have been prioritised over solid waste, which should not be because it is a major contributor to pollution and disease spread
Goal 7: target nine MDG’s is integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the losses of environmental resources.
SWM has a significant impact on the lives, health and surroundings of the community, a fact that we often do not realise until we are deprived of a waste collection service. The more subtle effects of solid waste collection on appreciation of our environment, on our public behaviour and on tourism and business, should not be ignored.(UNDP n.d)
Most research on waste in the developing world places more emphasis on the practical, direct factors influencing the institutions and elements associated with solid waste management but less on understanding the indirect motives of one’s behavior to the waste.
From this extensive review into solid waste management practices and coping mechanisms in both developing countries and their universities, there has been research studies into waste reduction and recycling but the extent to which the waste reduction is done through source separation from the point of generation at the household has not been explored.
In addition, there seem to be no data on the amount of waste generated and composition in Nigerian universities. This study into determining the quantity, composition and recycling potential of the waste generated in households in University of Benin through source separation would help to propose a set up of an integrated waste management program and feel the gap.
Nigeria’s COVID-19 waste management policy should include the informal sector
Professor of Environmental Management & Sustainability, University of Nigeria
PhD candidate, Meteorologist, University of Nigeria
Disclosure statement
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
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Solid waste management is an important public health service because it helps to prevent the transmission of disease. It also has a social significance: piles of uncollected waste in cities are an embarrassment to authorities and can create a political backlash from residents.
But many residents make their living from unmanaged waste. About a million waste pickers are estimated to operate in Nigerian cities. They depend on collecting and recycling waste, thus giving it a value. In doing so they are also performing an environmental health service. Yet their contribution has not been recognised officially and they are not protected from hazards.
Though Nigeria approved a national solid waste management policy earlier this year, it does not provide a plan to include the large informal sector. An inclusive policy is one recognising and involving informal waste workers in solid waste management while also yielding improvements in their lives and waste management performance.
The importance of doing so has become even clearer in the COVID-19 pandemic. With little or no personal protective equipment, waste workers are often exposed to hazards. Those in the informal sector are particularly vulnerable to disruption of their livelihoods and risks to their own health, especially during the COVID-19 lockdown.
We reviewed national and international policy documents on the pandemic and solid waste management to identify how these issues are linked and where there are gaps in policy. We were also informed by our previous work in waste management research. Our aim is to encourage a more inclusive and sustainable approach to the way solid waste is dealt with in Nigeria.
New kinds of waste
With the COVID-19 pandemic, new kinds of waste have been introduced into the environment. Used face masks and gloves, empty hand sanitiser containers and other plastic personal protective equipment are being discarded. Some of these are hazardous waste as they are used for the treatment and management of infected persons. Although the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control has developed guidelines and protocols for COVID-19, they don’t specify how to manage these new kinds of waste.
In this situation of uncertainty and change, the United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association have asked governments to treat waste management as an essential service. These international agencies also advocate that the public waste industry be included in coronavirus emergency response. A key policy document for the management of the pandemic in Nigeria merely lists waste management and environmental health services as essential services. We argue that this listing fell short of being gazetted and only applies to formal sector waste workers – not the waste pickers in the informal sector.
As waste pickers often work without protect gear, they are at high risk of viral infections , such as COVID-19. Yet, the Nigerian government’s COVID-19 policy responses have not addressed their plight .
Unsustainable urban policies and practices
Hostile policies towards waste workers during the pandemic are of particular concern. The banning and forced relocation of waste pickers from city dump sites in Lagos is a typical example. Some Nigerian governors also repatriated child beggars , many of whom are involved in waste picking, to their states of origin. The children eventually tested positive for the coronavirus. The forced movement of people raised concerns about transmission of the virus.
Public apprehension about the role of waste in the pandemic was also highlighted by, for example, a video of a pall bearer carelessly discarding his PPE and a photograph of two children wearing apparently discarded PPE .
Policy gaps
Based on our review , we suggest that an effective response to COVID-19 in Nigeria requires paying attention to the status and needs of informal and community actors.
We note the absence of solid waste management professionals on the Presidential Task Force on COVID-19 in Nigeria. This task force has the mandate of coordinating and overseeing efforts to contain the spread and mitigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
There is also a lack of guidance on how to adapt regular solid waste management services to a pandemic situation. More important is the absence of a solid waste management policy that includes the informal economy. Thus, solid waste management is not seen as a social issue with implications for social sustainability.
What needs to be done
The Nigerian government needs to declare and gazette solid waste management as an essential service . The recognition of waste pickers’ essential role in waste management services would be strategic to improvement of their lives and waste management performance . Collective organising of waste workers is crucial as this can help to create political platforms for informal workers to get support from governments and development partners.
We argue that the informal nature of urban life in Nigeria makes the COVID-19 pandemic a social and political economy challenge as well as a health problem. The status and needs of waste workers, as a social group in the informal economy, need to be taken on board in current and post-pandemic solid waste management policy and planning.
- Public health
- Peacebuilding
- Waste management
- Solid waste management
- Waste pickers
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Why Should I Choose Write Paper For Me As My School Assistant?
A quick Google search will unearth dozens of do-my-paper services, adding to your stress, instead of alleviating it. But unfortunately, you cannot trust the first company you find, tell the writers “Write a paper for me”, and hope for the best. Although you may be lucky enough to stumble upon a reliable company by accident, choosing a trustworthy service requires some research.
We suggest you look for these staples of a solid writing service WritePaperForMe has in spades:
- Academic writers with proven experience in your major. For instance, our write my paper service employs hundreds of experts across the most popular majors, so we can handle anything from Anatomy to Zoology.
- Thorough anti-plagiarism protocols. In our experience, a combination of writer training, strict citation procedures, and a mandatory plagiarism check ensure the best results for our clients.
- Round-the-clock access to human support agents. With our 24/7 support, you don’t have to wait for office hours to ask “Can you do my paper for me?”. You can get answers to all your questions, paper progress updates, and other help whenever you need it.
- Free and frictionless revision process. Although our writers do their best to meet your expectations on the first try, we guarantee free revisions and make the revision process easy and painless for everyone involved.
- Detailed confidentiality terms that protect your personal and financial data. We adhere to local and international data protection regulations and keep the specifics of your order private, so your school can never learn about your paper from us.
- Affordable rates that ensure the best value for money. We realize how tight money can be for students, so we keep our prices as low as possible while still keeping the writers happy and motivated.
If you want to make the most of these and other benefits, start by typing “Help me write my essay” in live chat, and we’ll see what we can do for you.
We Handle Any Paper Writing Task for High School, College, and Grad School
One of the most common complaints when it comes to paper writing is a poor writing style, unsuitable for a specific academic level. Fortunately, that never happens to our customers, as we carefully match your requirements with our writers’ expertise levels while keeping the rates affordable.
For example, when you come to us asking for a college essay, we’ll round up our experts with Bachelor’s degrees and above. Similarly, if you want us to handle MBA coursework, we’ll match you with a writer who already has their Master’s degree. And even doctorate papers, like thesis proposals or research papers, are not beyond our expertise, as our talent pool includes a fair share of PhDs.
So if you think our order form is too complex and your order doesn’t need to go beyond “Write essay for me,” we ask for your patience. After all, the more details you provide, starting with your academic level, the better we’ll be able to help you.
“Type an Essay for Me” Is Not the Only Service We Offer
You’ve probably found our site when you were looking to pay someone to write your essay. And we will happily take over argumentative, persuasive, narrative, and creative pieces for you. However, the do-my-paper service is not your only option. We have plenty of offers for students who are unwilling to let others take over their work completely. Here are a few viable suggestions that can make your college writing much easier:
- Editing works wonders for students unwilling to admit, “I need someone to write papers for me,” and looking to improve their writing style. Choose this service if you want actionable suggestions that will instantly improve your chances of getting a higher grade.
- Proofreading goes beyond the standard spellcheck and weeds out the smallest grammar, spelling, and style errors. Your professors will appreciate a flawless piece of writing without a single typo.
- Formatting doesn’t have to be dull and time-consuming, especially when your reference list exceeds a few dozen sources. If you let our experts take over, you’ll save yourself hours and submit a picture-perfect paper.
- Paraphrasing is the best choice for fast results when you already have a flawless piece but need it to pass a plagiarism check the second time. Just say, “Help me write my paper based on this sample,” and our writers will deliver a perfect replica, capable of fooling Turnitin.
We Employ Expert Academics to Make Your “Write My Paper” Order Perfect
Whether you’re an English or a STEM major, you’re probably wondering, “Who can write essay for me?” or “Why should I pay someone to write my paper for me when I know nothing about them?” And you’re absolutely right about asking these questions. After all, thousands of freelancers offer to write essay online, but you can’t know who to trust with your grades and record. To make your life easier, we take over the screening tasks to ensure only the best are hired and have the privilege to write an essay for you.
To get on our team, each writer must:
- Provide us with a copy of a college or postgraduate diploma.
- Share multiple samples of academic writing across different subjects, topics, and paper types.
- Write a paper on a topic of our choosing within 24 hours to demonstrate research and writing skills.
- Pass a timed English proficiency test with and score 80+ points.
And once hired, writers must keep their customer feedback rating high. Those who get negative comments don’t stay on our team for long.
Although our hiring approach may seem harsh, it’s proven its efficiency for writers and students. And we urge you to give our experts a chance to prove they’re as good at writing papers as we claim they are.
Deliver Every “Write My Paper” Order on Time
Timing is critical in the college papers market. An hour’s delay can make your submission late and cause you to fail the class. And a drawn-out revision may fry your last nerve and end in a breakdown.
To guarantee your every “write papers for me” order arrives in your inbox on time, we use an efficient communication and time-management approach and train our writers, editors, and proofreaders in beating procrastination and writer’s block.
Still, we urge you to be realistic in your expectations. Research alone would usually take several hours, and writing and finishing touches need time, too. So please give our experts enough time to work on your paper and give yourself enough leeway for a quick review and revision.
Our “Write Essay for Me” Service Is Online and Ready to Help 24/7
With so many responsibilities, it’s not uncommon for students to forget about essays. So if you wake up in cold sweat scrambling for answers to “Can someone do my essay for me asap?” you won’t be left to deal with the problem alone.
Our write my paper service never sleeps. The support agents operate round-the-clock through weekends and holiday seasons to ensure you can reach a human manager in your darkest hour and get the answers and support you need.
You can contact our team via:
Simply reach out, and explain your “write my paper” problem, and our managers will help you find a suitable solution. They can also get you in touch with your expert, provide progress updates, and explain our policy clauses and conditions.
We Guarantee Our “Write My Essay” Help Is Private and Confidential
“Can someone do my essay for me without risking my reputation?”
“I’m afraid my school will kick me out if they learn about my order.”
If you’re familiar with either of these lines of thinking, you’re just like any other college student. However, you have nothing to worry about when you pay someone to write your essay for you with our service. We carefully guard the details of your order and do not disclose your personal information to anyone without a court order.
So the only way your professors and school administration can learn about our help is if you tell them, “I pay to write my essay”. Without your confession, they’ll have no hard evidence. Their accusations and threats will be empty, and you’ll get away with buying papers easily, like thousands of our clients before you.
We Keep Working on Your “Write a Paper for Me” Requests Until You’re Happy
Reputation is everything for paper writing services. Although no company is safe from accusations, negative reviews, and underhanded rivalry with fellow “write my paper for me” platforms, we strive to keep every customer happy and willing to return.
That’s what our satisfaction guarantee is about. Whenever you come asking, “Write my essay online, we take your requirements seriously and ensure the experts fulfill your every instruction. And if you still think our writing could be better, you can order a free revision with your initial “write essay for me” parameters. Your writer will rework your piece according to your comments and return the second draft for your approval within 24 hours. With luck, you’ll like it better, and if not, you can repeat the whole process again and again until you’re 100% satisfied with your paper.
Ready to Reap the Benefits of Our “Write Papers for Me” Services?
If you’re ready to place your first “write my paper” order, welcome to the order form. It’s streamlined to guide you through sharing all the information your expert will need beyond your request of “write my paper for me”. And if at any point you feel lost, confused, or too tired to deal with our simple “do my essay” order form, reach out to our support team. Call or type something like “I want you to write a paper for me,” and they’ll respond within seconds to help you complete the order, finalize the payment, and get the first progress update when we assign the best expert to your case.
How can I pay someone to write a paper for me? What are your payment methods??
We accept credit and debit card payments by Visa, MasterCard, Discover, JCB, and American Express. You can use a reliable and secure payment system that keeps your personal and financial information safe to get us to write an essay for you. So you don’t have to worry and ruminate, “Is it safe to pay someone for writing my papers online?” After all, it’s as safe as getting your next coffee batch on Amazon or paying for your Netflix subscription.
How fast can you write my essay for me?
“Write my essay ASAP!” and “Write my essay, and I need it yesterday!” are two of the most common requests we get from college students. And although we can’t trick time and only have 24 hours in our days, we can deliver short pieces in 6 hours and longer assignments—within a day. As long as you don’t come asking “Write my research paper in six hours,” and are realistic about your expectations, our experts should be able to handle the tightest deadlines. But please account for a preview and revisions not to miss your submission deadline.
Can I talk to the person who’ll do my essay for me?
Of course, you can. We realize you’re probably thinking, “When I pay someone to write my paper, I want to have a direct line to this person.” So all you need to do is log into your account and find the chat tab to ask your questions or provide comments. But please remember that writers may not be available 24/7, as they have research and writing to take care of. If you’re thinking “I want round-the-clock access with the person I hired to write an essay for me,” you’re unlikely to find a writing service that will satisfy your needs.
Can you write my essay for me cheap?
Sure, our rates start as low as $6.99. Despite inflation and global crises, we keep our prices student-friendly. So anyone who comes asking, “write my paper for cheap” or “write my term paper without breaking the bank” will feel welcome and safe in the knowledge they’ll get the best value for money. At the same time, we urge you to beware of online frauds promising free results, as every “Write my research paper for me for free” may end in a scam.
Is it legal to use your service and pay someone to write my paper?
Yes, it is legal. Whether you’re carefully considering “Can someone do my paper for me?” in the privacy of your own mind or clamoring for assistance with the bold demands of “Write my paper for me now!”, you’re in the clear until you submit the paper you purchase for grading under your name. Even that isn’t illegal in most countries, though it is frowned upon in most schools. It’s up to you to decide what to do with the paper you get after we fulfill your order.
Can I pay someone to do my essay after it’s done?
Sadly, no. In an ideal world of perfectly honest people, you’d say, “I need help write my research paper”, and we’d have it ready for you for free and rely on your generosity. In the real world, our writers, editors, and support managers are real people who like to have a roof over their heads and meals on their tables. Our refund policy keeps you safe, but only your upfront payment protects our writers from scams. So whenever you ask, “Can you write my essay cheap?”, we say, “Sure”, but we ask you to cover the cost first.
Who will write my paper for me? How do I know they’re qualified to handle it?
Every writer on our team holds a degree in one or more majors, possesses years of academic writing experience, and has a solid reputation among our clients. You can be sure that whenever you run asking, “Write essay for me”, we’ll match you with an expert best suited to handling your academic level, class, and topic. Be safe in the knowledge that we only hire seasoned academics to write papers for you.
How do I choose the best writer to write my paper for me?
You can select a specific expert to deal with your “write my essay” issue or pick a top or pro-level writer. Although either of these options will add to the bottom line, you won’t have to wonder, “Who will write my essay?”. We recommend selecting one of our premium experts for critical assignments that need a special touch to score top grades and improve your class ranking or GPA. Contact our support team to ask, “Can someone write my paper for me with top results?” to learn more about writer options.
How do I know if you’ll make my essay original?
Your every “write my essay” order goes through a plagiarism checker to guarantee originality. After all, our writers know “write my paper” means crafting an original piece from scratch, not rewriting a stale sample found online. But if you want further proof, you’re welcome to order an official plagiarism report with a similarity percentage. All it takes is checking the box in the order form or asking a support agent to add it to the bottom line when you come asking, “I need you to write an essay for me.”
How can I lower the price when ordering an assignment?
Although we keep our online paper help rates as low as possible, you can play around with the order parameters to lower the price. For example, instead of crying, “I need you to write my essay in 12 hours”, set the deadline for two weeks, and your bottom line will be much more affordable. You can also wait for a seasonal promotion with discounts of up to 15% if you’re thinking, “I’m in no hurry to pay someone to write my essay.”
What do I do if you write my paper for me, and I don’t like it?
You can get a revision or a refund, depending on how much your “write my essay for me” order went off track. We know when you pay someone to write your paper you expect the best results, and we strive to follow every instruction to a T when we write a paper for you, but miscommunication can occur. In this case, don’t be shy about requesting a free revision or a new writer to rework your assignment. And if you feel the paper is unsalvageable, you may be liable for a partial or full refund.
How do I know you’ve finished writing my paper?
We’ll notify you via email the moment the writer uploads the first draft for your revision. You can then preview it and approve the piece to download an editable file or get it sent for a revision round with your comments about necessary corrections. Besides, you can always request a progress update from your writer or a support manager. Just ask them, “Any progress since I hired you to write my essay for me?”. As you see, you don’t need to fret, thinking, “How will I know when you write my essay, and it’s ready?”
What are you waiting for?
You are a couple of clicks away from tranquility at an affordable price!
- Will you write my paper for me? - Yes, we will.
Our paper writing benefits, let’s write a paper for you in no time, start with, “write my essay for me” and end with a perfect piece in your inbox, ready for download and submission for grading. it only takes four steps to go from one to the other..
Begin with “Write my essay” and add all the details you deem important, from the deadline and formatting style to your professor’s rubric and writing style preferences.
Watch your expert write an essay online through the dashboard or reach out to our support team for progress updates whenever you get antsy about the deadlines or instructions.
Check out the first draft preview you get in your inbox and approve the order to download an editable file or get your writer to revise the paper to make it even better.
What do the customers of Write Paper For Me say?
Still hesitant just look: your fellow students in search of someone to “do my essay” have already used our services and were pleased with the results.
Was looking to pay someone to write my paper. Found these guys and been using them for two years now.
I was afraid of plag, but it hasn’t been detected here. Get an essay once a month, and it keeps me from going insane, so I couldn’t recommend it more.
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I had to write my paper in two days but had no time. So I turned to my trusty writer. Sure, it was a bit pricey, but I got a pass, and the prof never suspected a thing.
I risked using this site knowing nothing of the real privacy here but it was the best decision of my life. I finally caught up on sleep, and my grades are better than ever.
When I need someone to write my paper for me cheap, I come here. Never failed a paper, and the prices are great. Wish the writers were more open, tho.
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Finally, I found someone to do my essay for me, no questions asked. Upload the prompt and rubric—get the paper in a week or so. Simple, painless, cheap. Love it.
Never thought I’d pay someone to write my essay, but now I can’t believe I waited this long to get help. It was much cheaper than I expected, super friendly and open!
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The best bargain is just a few clicks away!
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- 450 orders completed daily
- 86 disciplines of expertise
- 820+ professionals on our team
- 4.88/5 is the average order rating
Still have questions?
Contact our support agents and let them help you!
Is it time to write a paper for you? Contact us and relish the highest academic performance!
Our professionals will do their best!
Why Should I Pay Anyone to Write My Essay?
If you’re suddenly wondering, “Can someone do my paper for me?”, there’s likely a very good reason for that. After all, college is an eye-opening experience for most students. Not only is it your first attempt at independent life free from parents’ oversight, but it’s also a completely new level of academic requirements and independent study many aren’t ready for.
And if you’re an overachiever or a perfectionist, keeping up with all the classes, assignments, extracurriculars, and side gigs will keep you up most nights. You will soon forget about your plans to discover the party scene, visit your parents every other weekend, or find your soulmate on campus. If you try to stay on top of all your responsibilities, you’ll likely burn out or suffer an anxiety attack sooner rather than later.
So don’t feel bad if your thoughts go from “Can someone write my paper?” to “Write me a paper asap!” within the first few weeks of the college term. You’re not alone, and it’s perfectly normal to struggle in a new environment and buckle under the weight of elevated expectations.
Luckily, you don’t have to suffer in silence or give up on your dream of a college degree. Instead, you can seek help. And nowadays, it’s as easy as typing “Make an essay for me” in live chat.
Why Should I Choose Write Paper For Me As My School Assistant?
A quick Google search will unearth dozens of do-my-paper services, adding to your stress, instead of alleviating it. But unfortunately, you cannot trust the first company you find, tell the writers “Write a paper for me”, and hope for the best. Although you may be lucky enough to stumble upon a reliable company by accident, choosing a trustworthy service requires some research.
We suggest you look for these staples of a solid writing service WritePaperForMe has in spades:
- Academic writers with proven experience in your major. For instance, our write my paper service employs hundreds of experts across the most popular majors, so we can handle anything from Anatomy to Zoology.
- Thorough anti-plagiarism protocols. In our experience, a combination of writer training, strict citation procedures, and a mandatory plagiarism check ensure the best results for our clients.
- Round-the-clock access to human support agents. With our 24/7 support, you don’t have to wait for office hours to ask “Can you do my paper for me?”. You can get answers to all your questions, paper progress updates, and other help whenever you need it.
- Free and frictionless revision process. Although our writers do their best to meet your expectations on the first try, we guarantee free revisions and make the revision process easy and painless for everyone involved.
- Detailed confidentiality terms that protect your personal and financial data. We adhere to local and international data protection regulations and keep the specifics of your order private, so your school can never learn about your paper from us.
- Affordable rates that ensure the best value for money. We realize how tight money can be for students, so we keep our prices as low as possible while still keeping the writers happy and motivated.
If you want to make the most of these and other benefits, start by typing “Help me write my essay” in live chat, and we’ll see what we can do for you.
We Handle Any Paper Writing Task for High School, College, and Grad School
One of the most common complaints when it comes to paper writing is a poor writing style, unsuitable for a specific academic level. Fortunately, that never happens to our customers, as we carefully match your requirements with our writers’ expertise levels while keeping the rates affordable.
For example, when you come to us asking for a college essay, we’ll round up our experts with Bachelor’s degrees and above. Similarly, if you want us to handle MBA coursework, we’ll match you with a writer who already has their Master’s degree. And even doctorate papers, like thesis proposals or research papers, are not beyond our expertise, as our talent pool includes a fair share of PhDs.
So if you think our order form is too complex and your order doesn’t need to go beyond “Write essay for me,” we ask for your patience. After all, the more details you provide, starting with your academic level, the better we’ll be able to help you.
“Type an Essay for Me” Is Not the Only Service We Offer
You’ve probably found our site when you were looking to pay someone to write your essay. And we will happily take over argumentative, persuasive, narrative, and creative pieces for you. However, the do-my-paper service is not your only option. We have plenty of offers for students who are unwilling to let others take over their work completely. Here are a few viable suggestions that can make your college writing much easier:
- Editing works wonders for students unwilling to admit, “I need someone to write papers for me,” and looking to improve their writing style. Choose this service if you want actionable suggestions that will instantly improve your chances of getting a higher grade.
- Proofreading goes beyond the standard spellcheck and weeds out the smallest grammar, spelling, and style errors. Your professors will appreciate a flawless piece of writing without a single typo.
- Formatting doesn’t have to be dull and time-consuming, especially when your reference list exceeds a few dozen sources. If you let our experts take over, you’ll save yourself hours and submit a picture-perfect paper.
- Paraphrasing is the best choice for fast results when you already have a flawless piece but need it to pass a plagiarism check the second time. Just say, “Help me write my paper based on this sample,” and our writers will deliver a perfect replica, capable of fooling Turnitin.
We Employ Expert Academics to Make Your “Write My Paper” Order Perfect
Whether you’re an English or a STEM major, you’re probably wondering, “Who can write essay for me?” or “Why should I pay someone to write my paper for me when I know nothing about them?” And you’re absolutely right about asking these questions. After all, thousands of freelancers offer to write essay online, but you can’t know who to trust with your grades and record. To make your life easier, we take over the screening tasks to ensure only the best are hired and have the privilege to write an essay for you.
To get on our team, each writer must:
- Provide us with a copy of a college or postgraduate diploma.
- Share multiple samples of academic writing across different subjects, topics, and paper types.
- Write a paper on a topic of our choosing within 24 hours to demonstrate research and writing skills.
- Pass a timed English proficiency test with and score 80+ points.
And once hired, writers must keep their customer feedback rating high. Those who get negative comments don’t stay on our team for long.
Although our hiring approach may seem harsh, it’s proven its efficiency for writers and students. And we urge you to give our experts a chance to prove they’re as good at writing papers as we claim they are.
Deliver Every “Write My Paper” Order on Time
Timing is critical in the college papers market. An hour’s delay can make your submission late and cause you to fail the class. And a drawn-out revision may fry your last nerve and end in a breakdown.
To guarantee your every “write papers for me” order arrives in your inbox on time, we use an efficient communication and time-management approach and train our writers, editors, and proofreaders in beating procrastination and writer’s block.
Still, we urge you to be realistic in your expectations. Research alone would usually take several hours, and writing and finishing touches need time, too. So please give our experts enough time to work on your paper and give yourself enough leeway for a quick review and revision.
Our “Write Essay for Me” Service Is Online and Ready to Help 24/7
With so many responsibilities, it’s not uncommon for students to forget about essays. So if you wake up in cold sweat scrambling for answers to “Can someone do my essay for me asap?” you won’t be left to deal with the problem alone.
Our write my paper service never sleeps. The support agents operate round-the-clock through weekends and holiday seasons to ensure you can reach a human manager in your darkest hour and get the answers and support you need.
You can contact our team via:
Simply reach out, and explain your “write my paper” problem, and our managers will help you find a suitable solution. They can also get you in touch with your expert, provide progress updates, and explain our policy clauses and conditions.
We Guarantee Our “Write My Essay” Help Is Private and Confidential
“Can someone do my essay for me without risking my reputation?”
“I’m afraid my school will kick me out if they learn about my order.”
If you’re familiar with either of these lines of thinking, you’re just like any other college student. However, you have nothing to worry about when you pay someone to write your essay for you with our service. We carefully guard the details of your order and do not disclose your personal information to anyone without a court order.
So the only way your professors and school administration can learn about our help is if you tell them, “I pay to write my essay”. Without your confession, they’ll have no hard evidence. Their accusations and threats will be empty, and you’ll get away with buying papers easily, like thousands of our clients before you.
We Keep Working on Your “Write a Paper for Me” Requests Until You’re Happy
Reputation is everything for paper writing services. Although no company is safe from accusations, negative reviews, and underhanded rivalry with fellow “write my paper for me” platforms, we strive to keep every customer happy and willing to return.
That’s what our satisfaction guarantee is about. Whenever you come asking, “Write my essay online, we take your requirements seriously and ensure the experts fulfill your every instruction. And if you still think our writing could be better, you can order a free revision with your initial “write essay for me” parameters. Your writer will rework your piece according to your comments and return the second draft for your approval within 24 hours. With luck, you’ll like it better, and if not, you can repeat the whole process again and again until you’re 100% satisfied with your paper.
Ready to Reap the Benefits of Our “Write Papers for Me” Services?
If you’re ready to place your first “write my paper” order, welcome to the order form. It’s streamlined to guide you through sharing all the information your expert will need beyond your request of “write my paper for me”. And if at any point you feel lost, confused, or too tired to deal with our simple “do my essay” order form, reach out to our support team. Call or type something like “I want you to write a paper for me,” and they’ll respond within seconds to help you complete the order, finalize the payment, and get the first progress update when we assign the best expert to your case.
How can I pay someone to write a paper for me? What are your payment methods??
We accept credit and debit card payments by Visa, MasterCard, Discover, JCB, and American Express. You can use a reliable and secure payment system that keeps your personal and financial information safe to get us to write an essay for you. So you don’t have to worry and ruminate, “Is it safe to pay someone for writing my papers online?” After all, it’s as safe as getting your next coffee batch on Amazon or paying for your Netflix subscription.
How fast can you write my essay for me?
“Write my essay ASAP!” and “Write my essay, and I need it yesterday!” are two of the most common requests we get from college students. And although we can’t trick time and only have 24 hours in our days, we can deliver short pieces in 6 hours and longer assignments—within a day. As long as you don’t come asking “Write my research paper in six hours,” and are realistic about your expectations, our experts should be able to handle the tightest deadlines. But please account for a preview and revisions not to miss your submission deadline.
Can I talk to the person who’ll do my essay for me?
Of course, you can. We realize you’re probably thinking, “When I pay someone to write my paper, I want to have a direct line to this person.” So all you need to do is log into your account and find the chat tab to ask your questions or provide comments. But please remember that writers may not be available 24/7, as they have research and writing to take care of. If you’re thinking “I want round-the-clock access with the person I hired to write an essay for me,” you’re unlikely to find a writing service that will satisfy your needs.
Can you write my essay for me cheap?
Sure, our rates start as low as $6.99. Despite inflation and global crises, we keep our prices student-friendly. So anyone who comes asking, “write my paper for cheap” or “write my term paper without breaking the bank” will feel welcome and safe in the knowledge they’ll get the best value for money. At the same time, we urge you to beware of online frauds promising free results, as every “Write my research paper for me for free” may end in a scam.
Is it legal to use your service and pay someone to write my paper?
Yes, it is legal. Whether you’re carefully considering “Can someone do my paper for me?” in the privacy of your own mind or clamoring for assistance with the bold demands of “Write my paper for me now!”, you’re in the clear until you submit the paper you purchase for grading under your name. Even that isn’t illegal in most countries, though it is frowned upon in most schools. It’s up to you to decide what to do with the paper you get after we fulfill your order.
Can I pay someone to do my essay after it’s done?
Sadly, no. In an ideal world of perfectly honest people, you’d say, “I need help write my research paper”, and we’d have it ready for you for free and rely on your generosity. In the real world, our writers, editors, and support managers are real people who like to have a roof over their heads and meals on their tables. Our refund policy keeps you safe, but only your upfront payment protects our writers from scams. So whenever you ask, “Can you write my essay cheap?”, we say, “Sure”, but we ask you to cover the cost first.
Who will write my paper for me? How do I know they’re qualified to handle it?
Every writer on our team holds a degree in one or more majors, possesses years of academic writing experience, and has a solid reputation among our clients. You can be sure that whenever you run asking, “Write essay for me”, we’ll match you with an expert best suited to handling your academic level, class, and topic. Be safe in the knowledge that we only hire seasoned academics to write papers for you.
How do I choose the best writer to write my paper for me?
You can select a specific expert to deal with your “write my essay” issue or pick a top or pro-level writer. Although either of these options will add to the bottom line, you won’t have to wonder, “Who will write my essay?”. We recommend selecting one of our premium experts for critical assignments that need a special touch to score top grades and improve your class ranking or GPA. Contact our support team to ask, “Can someone write my paper for me with top results?” to learn more about writer options.
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- Corpus ID: 53325508
Abattoir operations and waste management in Nigeria: A review of challenges and prospects
- T. Adamu , U. Abubakar , +3 authors Ukato
- Published 2011
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- S. Ibrahim , B. Y. Kaltungo , +4 authors Hashimu Mohammed Dahiru
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Assessment of operational facilities and sanitary practices in Zangon Shanu abattoir, Sabon Gari Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria
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Benefits of animal intervention strategies in the control of neglected zoonotic diseases in Nigeria
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Factors affecting workers’ delivery of good hygienic and sanitary operations in slaughterhouses in north-central Nigeria
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Introduction, section snippets, references (14), cited by (162), recommended articles (6).
Waste Management
Country report solid waste management in abuja, nigeria.
The new city of Abuja provided an opportunity to avoid some of the environmental problems associated with other major cities in Africa. The current status of solid waste management in Abuja has been reviewed and recommendations for improvements are made. The existing solid waste management system is affected by unfavourable economic, institutional, legislative, technical and operational constraints. A reliable waste collection service is needed and waste collection vehicles need to be appropriate to local conditions. More vehicles are required to cope with increasing waste generation. Wastes need to be sorted at source as much as possible, to reduce the amount requiring disposal. Co-operation among communities, the informal sector, the formal waste collectors and the authorities is necessary if recycling rates are to increase. Markets for recycled materials need to be encouraged. Despite recent improvements in the operation of the existing dumpsite, a properly sited engineered landfill should be constructed with operation contracted to the private sector. Wastes dumped along roads, underneath bridges, in culverts and in drainage channels need to be cleared. Small-scale waste composting plants could promote employment, income generation and poverty alleviation . Enforcement of waste management legislation and a proper policy and planning framework for waste management are required. Unauthorized use of land must be controlled by enforcing relevant clauses in development guidelines. Accurate population data is necessary so that waste management systems and infrastructure can be properly planned. Funding and affordability remain major constraints and challenges.
Solid waste has become an important issue in Nigeria. Piles of wastes are often found by roads, rivers and many other open spaces in cities, and this is causing significant health and environmental problems. The urban population is growing at an alarming rate. While the Nigerian population is increasing by about 2.8% per annum, the rate of urban growth is as high as 5.5% per annum (UDBN, 1998). This is increasing the difficulties associated with providing an effective solid waste management system. As cities grow, land use becomes increasingly complex and the wastes generated increase in volume and variety (Omuta, 1987).
Solid waste management systems (waste storage, collection and transport, resource recovery and recycling, waste treatment and disposal) in Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria, have been assessed. Information was obtained from a variety of relevant groups and organisations including the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, the Abuja Environmental Protection Board, private sector companies, local residents and the informal waste sector. Problems associated with existing waste management systems and facilities have been identified. The legal, administrative and institutional framework and the role of informal recycling/scavenging has been analysed, and ways of achieving more efficient and effective solid waste management are proposed.
Abuja was established in 1976. It is the capital of Nigeria and is part of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). It was initially developed according to a Master Plan devised in 1979. This apportioned 2.0% of the FCT area for government activity/usage, 49.0% for residential development, and 32.5% as open/green/recreational areas to add to the aesthetics of the city, with the remaining land (16.5%) being used for ancillary services, light industries, other infrastructure and commercial
Role of Federal government agencies
Study the most reliable systems that are appropriate for local, domestic and industrial wastes.
Specify waste disposal and treatment methods that take into consideration the geological and environmental setting and encourage recycling.
Recommendations for improvements
A number of recommendations are made here, aimed at the development of an integrated and sustainable system for solid waste management in Abuja.
To minimise costs, an improved waste storage and collection system is required. Each household should use standard 120-L or 240-L waste bins that are placed outside for ease of collection. In areas where this is not appropriate, centrally located waste collection points should be established that are shared by a number of households. The capacity of the
Conclusions
The new city of Abuja provided an opportunity to avoid some of the environmental problems associated with many other major cities in Africa. Unfortunately, accelerated population growth in the 1990s far outstripped the provisions made in the Master Plan, and this is presenting the authorities with major problems concerned with the management of solid wastes.
There is a general lack of public awareness or concern regarding waste issues, and wastes are currently taken to a single poorly engineered
Acknowledgement
The award of a grant from the Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF), Nigeria for Amina Imam is gratefully acknowledged.
Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries
Habitat international, analysis of scavengers’ activities and recycling in some cities of nigeria, environmental management, private sector involvement in solid waste management – avoiding problems and building on successes.
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Evaluating and modelling a decentralised community-based waste collection system in developing São Tomé city
A small-scale waste collection service by means of a motor tricycle was put in place by the community of Boa Morte (in São Tomé e Príncipe), as a solution to face the lack of an adequate waste management in their neighbourhood. A qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the service was performed by the authors, including a characterisation of the generated waste, interviews with the population involved, a technical assessment and the development of a cost model. With respect to technical aspects, the vehicle chosen has been found to be a satisfactory choice, whereas the productivity of collection is still too low due to the dispersion of collection points. Concerning financial aspects, the cost model reveals that the scale of the scheme is still too small to be completely sustained by its own revenues, but this objective of self-sustainability is achievable within the limits defined for the system, by adding a determined number of new customers without exceeding the fixed maximum working time and introducing some improvements and time optimisation.
Challenges of waste management in Delhi (India) and its scope of improvement to achieve cities sustainability in developing nations: A review
A brief review on segregation of solid wastes in indian region.
In India, a key environmental challenge is the handling of municipal solid waste (MSW). The amount of MSW being generated in cities and towns has risen as a result of the country's fast urbanization, industrialization, and population growth. The improper disposal of MSW can have a negative impact on the environment, public health, and the socio-economic issues. In this paper, MSW of 9 different states of India was segregated in appropriate manner, such that peer analysis of each and every individual region can be highlighted. A comparison between treated and landfilled of solid waste (SW) among different region has been conducted with the trend analysis of past as well as current scenario of solid waste. Benefits of treated wastes and demerits of landfilling solid waste are comprehensively reviewed. This paper's review provides a detailed analysis for future research and concerning agencies deals with MSW in India.
Sustainable waste management approach: A paradigm shift towards zero waste into landfills
The management of Solid Waste (SW) has emerged as a critical problem specially in developing nations. The uncontrolled incineration of SW has caused increased emission of air pollutants including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulphur oxides (SOx), and PM 10 . The disposal of SW without proper measures has also led to heavy metal contamination in water, soil and entrance in the food chain causing biomagnification. Solid waste mismanagement is a global issue with reference to degradation of environmental quality, societal inclusivity, and economic sustenance. Thus, the concept of zero waste has surfaced as an integral paradigm towards attainment of ‘circularity’ or ‘circular economy’ across the globe. Waste diversion and aversion are the two primary pathways towards attaining Zero waste. The diversion component consists of replacing the use of landfills for waste disposal with some alternative including recycling, re use and composting techniques. While the aversion component consists of minimizing the quantity of waste which reaches landfills through management at the source itself. Thus, the concept of zero waste needs a paradigm shift which is superior to improving the existing conventional waste management technique. Thus, this chapter aims at analyzing the status of zero waste techniques and recognizing their potential positive and negative impacts on environment.
Socioeconomics effects on global hotspots of common debris items on land and the seafloor
Pollution of coastal environments by anthropogenic debris is a global problem that is increasingly in the public eye. We evaluated the influence of socioeconomic and geographic factors on common debris items at a global scale. We compared debris density and socioeconomic drivers of the ten most common items reported on land and the seafloor, analyzing data from 22,508 land-based and 7,290 seafloor clean-ups and surveys across 116 and 118 countries, respectively. We found debris hotspots for different items span numerous countries across all continents. This demonstrates that the debris problem is global and heterogeneous, pointing to the transboundary nature of the issue and necessitating sub-national approaches to implementing effective solutions. Food and beverage packaging items, predominantly made from single-use plastics, accounted for much of the debris. Hotspots of individual debris items were differentially driven by socioeconomic factors. In general, total debris counts increased with the value of infrastructure, and decreased with national wealth. Highly polluted sites occurred in high-infrastructure, low-wealth locations such as Athens, Greece; Tunis, Tunisia and Lima, Peru. Based on these findings, we identify specific opportunities for policy makers and citizens alike to focus efforts aimed at reducing debris entering the environment.
COVID-19 pandemic and emerging plastic-based personal protective equipment waste pollution and management in Africa
The threat of plastic waste pollution in African countries is increasing exponentially since the World Health Organisation declared the coronavirus infection as a pandemic. Fundamental to this growing threat are multiple factors, including the increased public consumption for single-use plastics, limited or non-existence of adequate plastic waste management infrastructures, and urbanisation. Plastics-based personal protective equipment including millions of surgical masks, medical gowns, face shields, safety glasses, protective aprons, sanitiser containers, plastics shoes, and gloves have been widely used for the reduction of exposure risk to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This paper estimates and elucidates the growing plethora of plastic wastes in African countries in the context of the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. A Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral fingerprint indicates that face masks were characterised by natural and artificial fibres including polyester fibres, polypropylene, natural latex resin. Our estimate suggests that over 12 billion medical and fabric face masks are discarded monthly, giving the likelihood that an equivalent of about 105,000 tonnes of face masks per month could be disposed into the environment by Africans. In general, 15 out of 57 African countries are significant plastic waste contributors with Nigeria (15%), Ethiopia (8.6%), Egypt (7.6%), DR Congo (6.7%), Tanzania (4.5%), and South Africa (4.4%) topping the list. Therefore, this expert insight is an attempt to draw the attention of governments, healthcare agencies, and the public to the potential risks of SARS-CoV-2-generated plastics (COVID plastic wastes), and the environmental impacts that could exacerbate the existing plastic pollution epidemic after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Waste reduction and utilization strategies to improve municipal solid waste management on Nigerian campuses
Universities bear the important responsibility of training capable individuals and imbibing into the society plans, programs and policies that are sustainable. However, they have failed to live up to this expectation/responsibility in developing nations like Nigeria. As a result, various publication domains like the Elsevier, Engineering village, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis, Springer books, Research gate, etc. were explored to understand different approaches by various authors on the strategies of managing solid waste generated in universities around the world so as to recommend better strategies for managing the solid wastes generated in Nigerian universities for a sustainable development. The solid wastes that are prevalent in most studies reviewed include organic, plastic, polythene, paper/cardboard, e-waste, metal/cans, sanitary, wood, leather/textiles, glass/bottle, polystyrene food pack, medical and rubber. However, there are four major categories that pose the most challenges to the environment, the atmosphere, the entire populace and during all stages of management because they contribute the most percentage both by volume and weight. They include: organic, paper, polythene and plastic. Consequently, the strategies for the four major categories were discussed in this work. Some of the strategies include prevention of the generation of avoidable wastes, reduction of the generated waste through recovery, reuse of the recovered wastes, recycling of the recyclables, composting of organic wastes for energy/electricity generation, and eventual disposal at sanitary landfills. The strategies were based on the principles of the Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) approach (3Rs) of an efficient and effective sustainable waste management, viz; Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
Solid Waste Management Practices at a Private Institution of Higher Learning in Nigeria
Waste generation is an intrinsic part of human existence. Waste materials are usually characterized by their nature, components and quality. Variations in quality, quantity and composition of solid waste can be linked to various factors such as cultural, economic, social and financial status of inhabitants of the particular space being studied. These distinct factors will also determine the best waste management practice to adopt. This paper captures the current institutional solid waste management in a Nigerian Private institution of higher learning. Using key-informant interview and personal field observations, the waste generation rate, pattern and characterization was made. Results showed that between 0.3 and 0.4 kg/capita/day was generated daily by the students in their respective halls of residence, with population ranging from 762 – 848 students in each of the halls. All the solid wastes generated were collected using appropriate waste collection bags and mobile bin positioned at strategic corners of the university premises. The waste materials after collection were segregated into plastics, bottles, nylon and organic materials by scavengers. After these non-bidegradables were sold in the secondary market, an estimated total sum of 639,900 naira (2908.6USD) was realized daily. At this rate a total sum of 230 million Naira (1,045,454.5 USD) is realizable yearly as wealth from waste. It was concluded that if all the organic waste streams from kitchens, cafeteria and animal houses are utilized for bioenergy and organic fertilizer, the wealth to be generated would be phenomenal.
Survey of household waste composition and quantities in Abuja, Nigeria
Inadequate management of household solid waste is a serious problem in many developing cities. The study aimed to evaluate the quantities and composition of household solid waste generation in Abuja within different socioeconomic groups. The wastes from 74 households across different socioeconomic levels in Abuja were collected, weighted and classified on a daily basis for seven days in February 2012. The result showed that the average daily per capita household waste generation is 0.634 kg/capita/day. The characteristic of solid waste in Abuja are typical for the developing cities and dominated by organic waste. Households waste consisted of 63.6% organic waste, 9.7% paper, 8.7% plastics, 3.2% metal, 2.6% glass, 1.6% textile and 10.6% others (unclassified) and the bulk density was 240 kg/m 3 . The evaluation of relationship between income and daily per capita household waste generation showed a positive relationship. The study revealed a statistically significant difference between household size and daily per capita household waste generation in high-income group; a slight significant difference between household size and daily per capita household waste generation in medium income group and no statistically significant difference between household size and daily per capita household waste generation in low-income group.
Technologies and decision support systems to aid solid-waste management: a systematic review
Population growth associated with population migration to urban areas and industrial development have led to a consumption relation that results in environmental, social, and economic problems. With respect to the environment, a critical concern is the lack of control and the inadequate management of the solid waste generated in urban centers. Among the challenges are proper waste-collection management, treatment, and disposal, with an emphasis on sustainable management. This paper presents a systematic review on scientific publications concerning decision support systems applied to Solid Waste Management (SWM) using ICTs and OR in the period of 2010–2013. A statistical analysis of the eighty-seven most relevant publications is presented, encompassing the ICTs and OR methods adopted in SWM, the processes of solid-waste management where they were adopted, and which countries are investigating solutions for the management of solid waste. A detailed discussion on how the ICTs and OR methods have been combined in the solutions was also presented. The analysis and discussion provided aims to help researchers and managers to gather insights on technologies/methods suitable the SWM challenges they have at hand, and on gaps that can be explored regarding technologies/methods that could be useful as well as the processes in SWM that currently do not benefit from using ICTs and OR methods.
Approaches to formalization of the informal waste sector into municipal solid waste management systems in low- and middle-income countries: Review of barriers and success factors
The Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) sector represents a major challenge for low-and middle-income countries due to significant environmental and socioeconomic issues involving rapid urbanization, their MSWM systems, and the existence of the informal waste sector. Recognizing its role, several countries have implemented various formalization measures, aiming to address the social problems linked to this sector. However, regardless of these initiatives, not all attempts at formalization have proved successful due to the existence of barriers preventing their implementation in the long term. Along with this, there is a frequent lack of knowledge or understanding regarding these barriers and the kind of measures that may enable formalization, thereby attaining a win-win situation for all the stakeholders involved. In this context, policy- and decision-makers in the public and private sectors are frequently confronted with the dilemma of finding workable approaches to formalization, adjusted to their particular MSWM contexts.
Building on the review of frequently implemented approaches to formalization, including an analysis of the barriers to and enabling measures for formalization, this paper aims to address this gap by explaining to policy- and decision-makers, and to waste managers in the private sector, certain dynamics that can be observed and that should be taken into account when designing formalization strategies that are adapted to their particular socioeconomic and political-institutional context. This includes possible links between formalization approaches and barriers, the kinds of barriers that need to be removed, and enabling measures leading to successful formalization in the long term.
This paper involved a literature review of common approaches to formalization, which were classified into three categories: (1) informal waste workers organized in associations or cooperatives; (2) organized in CBOs or MSEs; and (3) contracted as individual workers by the formal waste sector. This was followed by the identification and subsequent classification of measures for removing common barriers to formalization into five categories: policy/legal, institutional/organizational, technical, social, and economic/financial. The approaches to formalization, as well as the barrier categories, were validated through the assessment of twenty case studies of formalization. Building on the assessment, the paper discussed possible links between formalization approaches and barriers, the ‘persistent’ challenges that represent barriers to formalization, as well as key enabling factors improving the likelihood of successful formalization.
Regardless of the type of approach adopted to formalization, the review identifies measures to remove barriers in all five categories, with a stronger link between the approaches 1 and 2 and the existence of measures in the policy, institutional, and financial categories. Regarding persistent barriers, the review identified ones arising from the absence of measures to address a particular issue before formalization or due to specific country- or sector-related conditions, and their interaction with the MSWM context. 75% of the case studies had persistent barriers in respect of policy/legal issues, 50% of institutional/organizational, 45% of financial/economic, and 40%, and 35% of social and technical issues respectively.
This paper concludes that independently of the formalization approach, the lack of interventions or measures in any of the five categories of barriers may lead formalization initiatives to fail, as unaddressed barriers become ‘persistent’ after formalization is implemented. Furthermore, ‘persistent barriers’ may also appear due to unfavorable country-specific conditions. The success of a formalization initiative does not depend on a specific approach, but most likely on the inclusion of country-appropriate measures at the policy, economic and institutional levels. The empowerment of informal waste-workers is again confirmed as a further key success factor for their formalization.
Solid waste generation and characterization in the University of Lagos for a sustainable waste management
Waste characterization is the first step to any successful waste management policy. In this paper, the characterization and the trend of solid waste generated in University of Lagos, Nigeria was carried out using ASTM D5231-92 and Resource Conservation Reservation Authority RCRA Waste Sampling Draft Technical Guidance methods. The recyclable potential of the waste is very high constituting about 75% of the total waste generated. The estimated average daily solid waste generation in Unilag Akoka campus was estimated to be 32.2 tons. The solid waste characterization was found to be: polythene bags 24% (7.73 tons/day), paper 15% (4.83 tons/day), organic matters 15%, (4.83 tons/day), plastic 9% (2.90 tons/day), inert materials 8% (2.58 tons/day), sanitary 7% (2.25 tons/day), textile 7% (2.25 tons/day), others 6% (1.93 tons/day), leather 4% (1.29 tons/day) metals 3% (0.97 tons/day), glass 2% (0.64 tons/day) and e-waste 0% (0.0 tons/day). The volume and distribution of polythene bags generated on campus had a positive significant statistical correlation with the distribution of commercial and academic structures on campus. Waste management options to optimize reuse, recycling and reduce waste generation were discussed.
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This study presents a systematic review of existing literature, significant aspects of the existing novels was assessed: waste characterization, waste management practices, ecological impacts, public-private partnership, ethical issues, and legal framework and challenges militating against the current waste practices.
EFFECTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: AN APPROACH FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. Nnamani, Emmanuel C. and Odoh, Osita D. THE ABSTRACT Bearing in mind the interaction of man to his environment,...
A Review of Solid Waste Management Strategies in Nigeria Nwosu, Agnes Ogechukwu 1* Chukwueloka, Henry Emeka 2 1. Faculty of Marine Environmental Management, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko Delta State-Nigeria 2. School of Basic Science, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Delta State-Nigeria Abstract
A Review of Solid Waste Management Practice in Nigeria 1Ukala, D.C., 2Akaun Ifeanyi, H. I. 3*Owamah 1&3Department of Civil Engineering, Delta State University, Abraka, Oleh Campus, PMB 1, Nigeria 2Department of General Studies, Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku, Delta State
A Review of Solid Waste Management Practice in Nigeria Authors: Chukwuyem Ukala Delta State University, Abraka Akaun Ifeanyi Hilary Owamah Delta State University, Abraka Discover the world's...
The remaining sections of this paper are the literature review, methodology, presentation of the main review findings, discussion, limitations and conclusions, and direction for future research. ... highlighted that e-waste management in Nigeria was based on any combination of the four existing laws; the Harmful Waste Act HI 2004; the National ...
Study design: Literature review. Methods: A literature review was undertaken to evaluate the informal waste management system and formal waste management system in Nigeria and other developing countries with similar settings.
Research both past and present into solid waste in Nigeria like most developing countries with an absence of adequate solid waste management system has been focused more on adequate collection and disposal options than on the waste generators, storage or even an avenue for waste reduction which aids in reuse and recycling, hence creating major …
In this work, we reviewed the existing literature to appraise the status of healthcare waste management practices in Nigeria. This included generation, segregation, collection, storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal.
India is known as one of the most heavily settled countries in the world. It appears to be the second country to have the highest number of residents. With the total population of about expected data 1.37 billion in 2019. The management of Municipal Solid Waste...
Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Waste management in developing countries: The Integrated Sustainable Solid Waste Management (ISWM) Cities and towns in developing countries have for several decades been faced with a challenge of handling and managing solid waste adequately.
In this study, our aim is to present a comprehensive systematic review on digitalization (DT) in facility management (FM) and FM performance management (PM). Past research on these themes indicated that either research articles on DT in FM or research studies on FM PM are separately dealt with. However, in contrast, in our literature review, we try to present a holistic literature review by ...
A waste management hierarchy based on the most environmentally sound criteria favours waste. ... review of the literature published over almost 20 ... Solid Waste Management Practices at a Private Institution of Higher Learning in Nigeria. Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 35, 2016, pp. 28-39.
The findings revealed that waste management in Nigerian cities is largely monopolized by the agencies of state governments (sub-national governments) which have limited capacity to tackle the problems of solid waste management in their cities. In addition, 52 % of wastes generated are organic wastes which creates additional disposal problems.
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environmental or aesthetics.
Literature On Solid Waste Management In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay. ... 2.1.1 Purpose of the Literature Review. This chapter review gives an overview of the situation of solid waste management in developing countries critically examining and summarising studies by various researchers in academic books, professional and academic ...
Based on our review, we suggest that an effective response to COVID-19 in Nigeria requires paying attention to the status and needs of informal and community actors. We note the absence of solid ...
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Corpus ID: 53325508; Abattoir operations and waste management in Nigeria: A review of challenges and prospects @inproceedings{Adamu2011AbattoirOA, title={Abattoir operations and waste management in Nigeria: A review of challenges and prospects}, author={Tukur Adamu and Umar Alfa Abubakar and M. I. Abubakar and S. A. Adamu and V{\'e} and Ukato}, year={2011} }
Solid waste has become an important issue in Nigeria. Piles of wastes are often found by roads, rivers and many other open spaces in cities, and this is causing significant health and environmental problems. ... Technologies and decision support systems to aid solid-waste management: a systematic review. Waste Management, Volume 59, 2017, pp ...